Editing Organic farming (section)

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Organic farming and biodiversity}}

The conservation of natural resources and biodiversity is a core principle of organic production. Three broad management practices (prohibition/reduced use of chemical pesticides and inorganic fertilizers; sympathetic management of non-cropped habitats; and preservation of mixed farming) that are largely intrinsic (but not exclusive) to organic farming are particularly beneficial for farmland wildlife.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Pilgeram |first1=Ryanne |last2=Amos |first2=Bryan |date=September 7, 2015 |title=Beyond "Inherit It or Marry It": Exploring How Women Engaged in Sustainable Agriculture Access Farmland |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ruso.12054 |journal=[[Rural Sociology (journal)|Rural Sociology]] |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=16–38 |doi=10.1111/ruso.12054 |via=[[Wiley Online Library]]}}</ref> Using practices that attract or introduce beneficial insects, provide habitat for birds and mammals, and provide conditions that increase soil biotic diversity serve to supply vital ecological services to organic production systems. Advantages to certified organic operations that implement these types of production practices include: 1) decreased dependence on outside fertility inputs; 2) reduced pest-management costs; 3) more reliable sources of clean water; and 4) better pollination.<ref name="Agricultural Marketing Service 2016">"USDSA Guidance Natural Resources and Biodiversity Conservation"(PDF). ''Agricultural Marketing Service, National Organic Program''. United States Department of Agriculture. 15 January 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016.</ref>

Nearly all non-crop, naturally occurring<ref name=":0">{{in lang|fr}} Institut de recherche de l'agriculture biologique, [https://shop.fibl.org/fileadmin/documents/shop/1441-arguments.pdf « 100 arguments en faveur de l’agriculture biologique »] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305045459/https://shop.fibl.org/fileadmin/documents/shop/1441-arguments.pdf|date=5 March 2016}}, second edition, September 2015 (page visited on 8 November 2015).</ref> species observed in comparative farm land practice studies show a preference for organic farming both by abundance and diversity.<ref name="Hole et al. 2005" /><ref name="Gabriel and Tscharntke 2006">{{cite journal |doi=10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[2011:BDADSS]2.0.CO;2 |year=2006 |volume=16 |pages=2011–21 |title=Beta Diversity at Different Spatial Scales: Plant Communities in Organic and Conventional Agriculture |last1=Gabriel |first1=Doreen |last2=Roschewitz |first2=Indra |last3=Tscharntke |first3=Teja |last4=Thies |first4=Carsten |journal=Ecological Applications |issue=5 |pmid=17069391}}</ref> An average of 30% more species inhabit organic farms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtsston |first1=J. |last2=Ahnström |first2=J. |last3=Weibull |first3=A. |year=2005 |title=The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01005.x |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=42|issue=2 |pages=261–269|doi-access=free |bibcode=2005JApEc..42..261B }}</ref> Birds, butterflies, soil microbes, beetles, earthworms,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/01448765.2000.9754876|last=Blakemore |first=R.J. |year=2000 |title= Ecology of Earthworms under the 'Haughley Experiment' of Organic and Conventional Management Regimes | journal= Biological Agriculture & Horticulture |volume=18|issue=2 |pages=141–159 |bibcode=2000BioAH..18..141B |s2cid=85386290 |url=http://www.annelida.net/earthworm/Haughley/Haughley.doc }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Blakemore, R.J |journal=Soil Systems |year=2018 |volume=2 |issue=2 |page=33 |doi=10.3390/soilsystems2020033 |doi-access=free |last1=Blakemore |first1=Robert J. }}</ref> spiders, vegetation, and mammals are particularly affected. Lack of herbicides and pesticides improve biodiversity fitness and population density.<ref name="Gabriel and Tscharntke 2006" /> Many weed species attract beneficial insects that improve soil qualities and forage on weed pests.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0167-8809(99)00096-1|last=van Elsen |first=T. |year=2000 |title=Species diversity as a task for organic agriculture in Europe | journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment |volume=77|issue=1–2 |pages=101–109|bibcode=2000AgEE...77..101V }}</ref> Soil-bound organisms often benefit because of increased bacteria populations due to natural fertilizer such as manure, while experiencing reduced intake of [[herbicide]]s and pesticides.<ref name="Hole et al. 2005" /> Increased biodiversity, especially from beneficial soil microbes and [[mycorrhizae]] have been proposed as an explanation for the high yields experienced by some organic plots, especially in light of the differences seen in a 21-year comparison of organic and control fields.<ref name="Fließbach et al. 2006">{{Cite journal|last1=Fließbach |first1=A. |last2=Oberholzer |first2=H. |last3=Gunst |first3=L. |last4=Mäder |first4=P. |year=2006 |title=Soil organic matter and biological soil quality indicators after 21 years of organic and conventional farming |journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment |volume=118 |issue=1–4 |pages=273–284|doi=10.1016/j.agee.2006.05.022}}</ref>

Organic farming contributes to human capital by promoting biodiversity. The presence of various species in organic farms helps to reduce human input, such as fertilizers, and pesticides, which enhances sustainability.

The USDA's Agricultural Marketing Service published a ''Federal Register'' notice on 15 January 2016, announcing the National Organic Program (NOP) final guidance on Natural Resources and Biodiversity Conservation for Certified Organic Operations. Given the broad scope of natural resources which includes soil, water, wetland, woodland and wildlife, the guidance provides examples of practices that support the underlying conservation principles and demonstrate compliance with USDA organic regulations § 205.200.<ref name="Agricultural Marketing Service 2016"/> The final guidance provides organic certifiers and farms with examples of production practices that support conservation principles and comply with the USDA organic regulations, which require operations to maintain or improve natural resources.<ref name="Agricultural Marketing Service 2016"/> The final guidance also clarifies the role of certified operations (to submit an OSP to a certifier), certifiers (ensure that the OSP describes or lists practices that explain the operator's monitoring plan and practices to support natural resources and biodiversity conservation), and inspectors (onsite inspection) in the implementation and verification of these production practices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/NOP%205020%20Biodiversity%20Guidance%20Rev01%20%28Final%29.pdf|title=USDSA Guidance Natural Resources and Biodiversity Conservation|date=15 January 2016|website=Agricultural Marketing Service, National Organic Program|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|access-date=5 March 2016}}</ref>

A wide range of organisms benefit from organic farming, but it is unclear whether organic methods confer greater benefits than conventional integrated agri-environmental programs.<ref name="Hole et al. 2005">{{Cite journal| title = Does organic farming benefit biodiversity? |journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 122 | issue = 1 | pages = 113–130 | doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2004.07.018 |last1=Hole |first1=D.G. |last2=Perkins |first2=A.J. |last3=Wilson |first3=J.D. |last4=Alexander |first4=I.H. |last5=Grice |first5=P.V. |last6=Evans |first6=A.D. |year=2005|bibcode = 2005BCons.122..113H }}</ref> Organic farming is often presented as a more biodiversity-friendly practice, but the generality of the beneficial effects of organic farming is debated as the effects appear often species- and context-dependent, and current research has highlighted the need to quantify the relative effects of local- and landscape-scale management on farmland biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Henckel
| first = Laura
| date = 20 May 2015
| title = Organic fields sustain weed metacommunity dynamics in farmland landscapes
| journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B
| doi = 10.1098/rspb.2015.0002
| pmid = 25994672
| volume=282
| issue = 1808
| page=20150002
| pmc =4455794
}}</ref> There are four key issues when comparing the impacts on biodiversity of organic and conventional farming: (1) It remains unclear whether a holistic whole-farm approach (i.e. organic) provides greater benefits to biodiversity than carefully targeted prescriptions applied to relatively small areas of cropped and/or non-cropped habitats within conventional agriculture (i.e. agri-environment schemes); (2) Many comparative studies encounter methodological problems, limiting their ability to draw quantitative conclusions; (3) Our knowledge of the impacts of organic farming in pastoral and upland agriculture is limited; (4) There remains a pressing need for longitudinal, system-level studies in order to address these issues and to fill in the gaps in our knowledge of the impacts of organic farming, before a full appraisal of its potential role in biodiversity conservation in agroecosystems can be made.<ref name=":1a">{{cite journal|last1=Hole|first1=D.G.|last2=Perkins|first2=A.J.|last3=Wilson|first3=J.D.|last4=Alexander|first4=I.H.|last5=Grice|first5=P.V.|last6=Evans|first6=A.D.|title=Does organic farming benefit biodiversity?|journal=Biological Conservation|date=March 2005|volume=122|issue=1|pages=113–130|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2004.07.018|bibcode=2005BCons.122..113H }}</ref>