Editing History of medicine (section)

==== Places ====

===== Spain and the Spanish Empire =====
[[File:FlorentineCodex BK12 F54 smallpox.jpg|thumb|left|Depiction of [[smallpox]] in Franciscan [[Bernardino de Sahagún]]'s history of the conquest of Mexico, Book XII of the ''[[Florentine Codex]]'', from the defeated Aztecs' point of view]]

In the [[Spanish Empire]], the viceregal capital of Mexico City was a site of medical training for physicians and the creation of hospitals. Epidemic disease had decimated indigenous populations starting with the early sixteenth-century [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire]], when a black auxiliary in the armed forces of conqueror [[Hernán Cortés]], with an active case of [[smallpox]], set off a virgin land epidemic among indigenous peoples, Spanish allies and enemies alike. Aztec emperor [[Cuitlahuac]] died of smallpox.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Altman I |title=The Early History of Greater Mexico |date=2003 |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |isbn=978-0-13-091543-6 | page = 99 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cook SF | year = 1946 | title = The Incidence of Disease Among the Aztecs and Related Tribes | journal = Hispanic American Historical Review | volume = 36 | pages = 32–35 }}</ref> Disease was a significant factor in the Spanish conquest elsewhere as well.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Cook ND |title=Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650 |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-62730-6}}</ref>

[[File:Dibujo Escudo de Armas de México.jpg|thumb|upright|Mexico City epidemic of 1737, with elites calling on the [[Virgin of Guadalupe]]]]

Medical education instituted at the [[Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico]] chiefly served the needs of urban elites. Male and female ''curanderos'' or lay practitioners, attended to the ills of the popular classes. The Spanish crown began regulating the medical profession just a few years after the conquest, setting up the Royal Tribunal of the Protomedicato, a board for licensing medical personnel in 1527. Licensing became more systematic after 1646 with physicians, druggists, surgeons, and bleeders requiring a license before they could publicly practice.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Schendel G, Amézquita JA, Bustamante ME |title=Medicine in Mexico: From Aztec Herbs to Betatrons |date=2014 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-1-4773-0636-9 | page = 99 }}</ref> Crown regulation of medical practice became more general in the Spanish empire.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Lanning JT |title=The Royal Protomedicato: The Regulation of the Medical Professions in the Spanish Empire |date=1985 |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham |isbn=978-0-8223-0651-1}}</ref>

Elites and the popular classes alike called on divine intervention in personal and society-wide health crises, such as the epidemic of 1737. The intervention of the [[Virgin of Guadalupe]] was depicted in a scene of dead and dying Indians, with elites on their knees praying for her aid. In the late eighteenth century, the crown began implementing secularizing policies on the Iberian peninsula and its overseas empire to control disease more systematically and scientifically.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Burke ME |title=The Royal College of San Carlos: surgery and Spanish medical reform in the late eighteenth century |date=1977 |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham, N.C. |isbn=978-0-8223-0382-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Cooper DB |title=Epidemic Disease in Mexico City, 1761–1813: An Administrative, Social, and Medical Study (LLILAS Latin American Monograph Series) |date=1965 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin |isbn=978-1-4773-0575-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | chapter = Chapter 7: The Rise of Medical Empiricism | vauthors = Voekel P |title=Alone Before God: The Religious Origins of Modernity in Mexico |date=2002 |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham |isbn=978-0-8223-8429-8}}</ref>

===== Spanish Quest for Medicinal Spices =====
Botanical medicines also became popular during the 16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries. Spanish pharmaceutical books during this time contain medicinal recipes consisting of spices, herbs, and other botanical products. For example, nutmeg oil was documented for curing stomach ailments and cardamom oil was believed to relieve intestinal ailments.<ref name="De_Vos_2006">{{Cite journal| vauthors = De Vos P |date=2006|title=The Science of Spices: Empiricism and Economic Botany in the Early Spanish Empire|journal=Journal of World History|volume=17|issue=4|pages=399–427 |jstor=20079398|doi=10.1353/jwh.2006.0054| s2cid=201793405 }}</ref> During the rise of the global trade market, spices and herbs, along with many other goods, that were indigenous to different territories began to appear in different locations across the globe. Herbs and spices were especially popular for their utility in cooking and medicines. As a result of this popularity and increased demand for spices, some areas in Asia, like China and Indonesia, became hubs for spice cultivation and trade.<ref name="Frank_1998">{{Cite book|title=ReOrient: global economy in the Asian Age| vauthors = Frank AG |date=1998|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92131-3 |location=Berkeley |pages=96–100|oclc=42922426}}</ref> The Spanish Empire also wanted to benefit from the international spice trade, so they looked towards their American colonies.

The Spanish American colonies became an area where the Spanish searched to discover new spices and indigenous American medicinal recipes. The [[Florentine Codex]], a 16th-century ethnographic research study in Mesoamerica by the Spanish [[Franciscan friar]] [[Bernardino de Sahagún]], is a major contribution to the history of [[Nahuas|Nahua]] medicine.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=de Bernardino S |title=Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España |trans-title=General History of the Things of New Spain |series=The Florentine Codex |language=Spanish |date=2006 |publisher=Editorial Porrúa |location=México |isbn=978-9-70-07649-24 |edition=11th |url=https://www.wdl.org/es/item/10096/view/1/1/ |access-date=2020-02-01 |archive-date=2019-07-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708193906/https://www.wdl.org/es/item/10096/view/1/1/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Spanish did discover many spices and herbs new to them, some of which were reportedly similar to Asian spices. A Spanish physician by the name of [[Nicolás Monardes]] studied many of the American spices coming into Spain. He documented many of the new American spices and their medicinal properties in his survey ''[[Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales]]''. For example, Monardes describes the "Long Pepper" (Pimienta luenga), found along the coasts of the countries that are now known Panama and Colombia, as a pepper that was more flavorful, healthy, and spicy in comparison to the Eastern black pepper.<ref name="De_Vos_2006" /> The Spanish interest in American spices can first be seen in the commissioning of the ''[[Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis]]'', which was a Spanish-American codex describing indigenous American spices and herbs and describing the ways that these were used in natural Aztec medicines. The codex was commissioned in the year 1552 by Francisco de Mendoza, the son of [[Antonio de Mendoza]], who was the first Viceroy of New Spain.<ref name="De_Vos_2006" /> Francisco de Mendoza was interested in studying the properties of these herbs and spices, so that he would be able to profit from the trade of these herbs and the medicines that could be produced by them.

Francisco de Mendoza recruited the help of Monardez in studying the traditional medicines of the indigenous people living in what was then the Spanish colonies. Monardez researched these medicines and performed experiments to discover the possibilities of spice cultivation and medicine creation in the Spanish colonies. The Spanish transplanted some herbs from Asia, but only a few foreign crops were successfully grown in the Spanish Colonies. One notable crop brought from Asia and successfully grown in the Spanish colonies was ginger, as it was considered Hispaniola's number 1 crop at the end of the 16th Century.<ref name="De_Vos_2006" /> The Spanish Empire did profit from cultivating herbs and spices, but they also introduced pre-Columbian American medicinal knowledge to Europe. Other Europeans were inspired by the actions of Spain and decided to try to establish a botanical transplant system in colonies that they controlled, however, these subsequent attempts were not successful.<ref name="Frank_1998" />

===== United Kingdom and the British Empire =====
[[File:18th Century Recipes f.459 - Medical remedies.jpg|thumb|18th-century medical remedies collected by a British Gentry family]]
The London Dispensary opened in 1696, the first clinic in the British Empire to dispense medicines to poor sick people. The innovation was slow to catch on, but new dispensaries were open in the 1770s. In the colonies, small hospitals opened in Philadelphia in 1752, New York in 1771, and Boston ([[Massachusetts General Hospital]]) in 1811.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Davis MM, Warner AR |url= https://archive.org/details/dispensariesthei00daviuoft |title=Dispensaries, Their Management and Development: A Book for Administrators, Public Health Workers, and All Interested in Better Medical Service for the People |publisher=MacMillan |year=1918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dispensariesthei00daviuoft/page/2 2]–5}}</ref>

[[File:Guy's Hospital00.jpg|thumb|[[Guy's Hospital]] in 1820]]

[[Guy's Hospital]], the first great British hospital with a modern foundation, opened in 1721 in London, with funding from businessman [[Thomas Guy]]. It had been preceded by [[St Bartholomew's Hospital]] and [[St Thomas's Hospital]], both medieval foundations. In 1821 a bequest of £200,000 by William Hunt in 1829 funded expansion for an additional hundred beds at Guy's. [[Samuel Sharp (surgeon)|Samuel Sharp]] (1709–78), a surgeon at Guy's Hospital from 1733 to 1757, was internationally famous; his ''A Treatise on the Operations of Surgery'' (1st ed., 1739), was the first British study focused exclusively on operative technique.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirkup J | title = Samuel Sharp and the Operations of Surgery, 1739 | journal = Journal of Medical Biography | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–7 | date = February 1996 | pmid = 11615341 | doi = 10.1177/096777209600400101 | s2cid = 26133970 }}</ref>

English physician [[Thomas Percival]] (1740–1804) wrote a comprehensive system of medical conduct, ''[[Medical Ethics; or, a Code of Institutes and Precepts, Adapted to the Professional Conduct of Physicians and Surgeons]]'' (1803) that set the standard for many textbooks.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Waddington I | title = The development of medical ethics -a sociological analysis | journal = Medical History | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–51 | date = January 1975 | pmid = 1095851 | pmc = 1081608 | doi = 10.1017/s002572730001992x }}</ref>