Editing Erwin Rommel (section)

== In Nazi and Allied propaganda ==
At the beginning, although Hitler and Goebbels took particular notice of Rommel, the Nazi elites had no intent to create one major war symbol (partly out of fear that he would offset Hitler{{sfn|Latimer|2002|p=27}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hitler|first1=Adolf|last2=Domarus|first2=Max|title=The essential Hitler: speeches and commentary|date=2007|publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Pub|isbn=978-0-86516-627-1|page=124}}</ref>), generating huge propaganda campaigns for not only Rommel but also [[Gerd von Rundstedt]], [[Walther von Brauchitsch]], [[Eduard Dietl]], [[Sepp Dietrich]] (the latter two were party members and also strongly supported by Hitler), etc.<ref name="Weinberg">{{cite book|last1=Weinberg|first1=Gerhard L.|last2=Trevor-Roper|first2=Hugh R.|title=Hitler's Table Talk 1941–1944: Secret Conversations|date=2013|publisher=Enigma Books|isbn=978-1-936274-93-2|page=397|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fk-aXlliu6cC&pg=PA397}}</ref>{{sfn|Hansen|2014|p=46}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wistrich|first1=Robert S.|title=Who's Who in Nazi Germany|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-41381-0|page=41|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nT-psA9fj_AC&pg=PA41}}</ref> Nevertheless, a multitude of factors—including Rommel's unusual charisma,{{refn|group=N|Remy:"On 8 August 1914,&nbsp;... Rommel discovered that he had unusual charisma&nbsp;... This effect (he had on the troops) would become the fundamental element of Mythos Rommel.",{{sfn|Remy|2002|p=16}}}}{{refn|group=N|[[Der Spiegel]]: "The Wehrmacht had many capable generals&nbsp;... but none had the charisma of the Swabian with that distinctive round head."{{sfn|Fleischhauer|Friedmann|2012}}}} his talents both in military matters and public relations,{{sfn|Messenger|2009|p=179}}{{refn|group=N|Majdalany: Rommel was, among other things, clever at public relations.{{sfn|Majdalany|2003|p=31}}}}, the efforts of Goebbels's propaganda machine, and the Allies' participation in mythologising his life (either for political benefits,<ref name="Weinberg"/> sympathy for someone who evoked a romantic archetype,{{sfn|Hansen|2014|pp=46–47}} or genuine admiration for his actions<ref name="Auchinleck: The Lonely Soldier">{{cite book|last1=Warner|first1=Philip s|title=Auchinleck: The Lonely Soldier|date= 2006|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-4738-1204-8|page=108|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wOwyAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108}}</ref>)—gradually contributed to Rommel's fame. Spiegel wrote, "Even back then his fame outshone that of all other commanders."

Rommel's victories in France were featured in the German press and in the February 1941 film ''[[Sieg im Westen]] (Victory in the West),'' in which Rommel personally helped direct a segment re-enacting the crossing of the Somme River.{{sfn|Watson|1999|pp=158–159}}According to Scheck, although there is no evidence of Rommel committing crimes, during the shooting of the movie, African prisoners of war, were forced to take part in its making, and forced to carry out humiliating acts.<ref>Hitler's African Victims: The German Army Massacres of Black French Soldiers in 1940, page 45, Raffael Scheck</ref><ref>French Colonial Soldiers in German Captivity during World War II, page 42, Raffael Scheck</ref> Stills from the re-enactment are found in "Rommel Collection"; it was filmed by Hans Ertl, assigned to this task by Dr. Kurt Hesse, a personal friend of Rommel, who worked for Wehrmacht Propaganda Section V<ref>''World War II & the media. A collection of original essays'', By Christopher Hart, Guy Hodgson, Simon Gwyn Jones, ''"Every German had a bloody Leica'. Heinrich von der Becke's 'Negro' and Other Photographs of Colonial POW's in WW2" by Brain Machin  University of Chester'' p. 171</ref> Rommel's victories in 1941 were played up by the [[Nazi propaganda]], even though his successes in North Africa were achieved in arguably one of Germany's least strategically important theatres of World War II.{{sfn|Caddick-Adams|2012|pp=471–472}}{{refn|group=N|Niall Barr: "...&nbsp;came to fame in a theatre which held almost no strategic interest for Hitler whatsoever."({{harvnb|Barr|2014|p=60}}). Martin Kitchen: "German historians have largely ignored the North African campaign, not only because it was peripheral&nbsp;..."({{harvnb|Kitchen|2009|p=9}}).}} In November 1941, Reich Minister of Propaganda [[Joseph Goebbels]] wrote about "the urgent need" to have Rommel "elevated to a kind of popular hero." Rommel, with his innate abilities as a military commander and love of the spotlight, was a perfect fit for the role Goebbels designed for him.{{sfn|Caddick-Adams|2012|pp=471–472}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1970-076-43, Paris, Erwin Rommel bei Siegesparade.jpg|thumb|Rommel at a Paris victory parade (June 1940). Rommel had access to Reich Minister of Propaganda [[Joseph Goebbels]] via a senior propaganda official [[Karl Hanke]], who served under Rommel during the 1940 campaign.{{sfn|Caddick-Adams|2012|pp=210–211}}]]

=== Successes in North Africa ===
In North Africa, Rommel received help in cultivating his image from [[Alfred Ingemar Berndt]], a senior official at the [[Reich Propaganda Ministry]] who had volunteered for military service.{{sfn|Watson|1999|p=159}} Seconded by Goebbels, Berndt was assigned to Rommel's staff and became one of his closest aides. Berndt often acted as a liaison between Rommel, the Propaganda Ministry, and the [[Führer Headquarters]]. He directed Rommel's photo shoots and filed radio dispatches describing the battles.{{sfn|Reuth|2005|p=124}}{{sfn|Citino|2012}}

In the spring of 1941, Rommel's name began to appear in the British media. In the autumn of 1941 and early winter of 1941/1942, he was mentioned in the British press almost daily. Toward the end of the year, the Reich propaganda machine also used Rommel's successes in Africa as a diversion from the Wehrmacht's challenging situation in the Soviet Union with the stall of [[Operation Barbarossa]].{{sfn|Reuth|2005|pp=136–139}}{{sfn|Caddick-Adams|2012|p=471}}{{refn|group=N|[[Peter Caddick-Adams]]: "Rommel's advances over the winter 1941–42 became a very useful distraction away from Germany's failure before Moscow."{{sfn|Caddick-Adams|2012|p=471}}}} The American press soon began to take notice of Rommel as well, following the country's entry into the war on 11 December 1941, writing that "The British (...) admire him because he beat them and were surprised to have beaten in turn such a capable general." General Auchinleck distributed a directive to his commanders seeking to dispel the notion that Rommel was a "superman".{{sfn|Watson|1999|pp=166–167}}{{sfn|Reuth|2005|pp=141–143}} Rommel, no matter how hard the situation was, made a deliberate effort at always spending some time with soldiers and patients, his own and POWs alike, which contributed greatly to his reputation of not only being a great commander but also "a decent chap" among the troops.<ref name="Auchinleck: The Lonely Soldier"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Majdalany|first1=Fred|title=The Battle of El Alamein: Fortress in the Sand|date=2003|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-1850-3|pages=31–32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u9JDXgTOgEgC&pg=PA31}}</ref>

The attention of the Western and especially the British press thrilled Goebbels, who wrote in his diary in early 1942: "Rommel continues to be the recognized darling of even the enemies' news agencies."{{sfn|Reuth|2005|p=144}} The Field Marshal was pleased by the media attention, although he knew the downsides of having a reputation.{{sfn|Reuth|2005|p=144}}{{refn|group=N|Quote from one of Rommel's letters, January 1942: "The opinion of me in the world press has improved."{{sfn|Reuth|2005|p=144}}}}{{sfn|Zaloga|2013a|p=24}} Hitler took note of the British propaganda as well, commenting in the summer of 1942 that Britain's leaders must have hoped "to be able to explain their defeat to their own nation more easily by focusing on Rommel".{{sfn|Reuth|2005|p=148}}

The Field Marshal was the German commander most frequently covered in the German media and the only one to be given a press conference, which took place in October 1942.{{sfn|Citino|2012}}{{sfn|Reuth|2005|pp=144–146}} The press conference was moderated by Goebbels and was attended by both domestic and foreign media. Rommel declared: "Today we (...) have the gates of Egypt in hand, and with the intent to act!" Keeping the focus on Rommel distracted the German public from Wehrmacht losses elsewhere as the tide of the war began to turn. He became a symbol that was used to reinforce the German public's faith in an ultimate Axis victory.{{sfn|Reuth|2005|pp=150–152}}

=== Military reverses ===
In the wake of the successful British offensive in November 1942 and other military reverses, the Propaganda Ministry directed the media to emphasise Rommel's invincibility. The charade was maintained until the spring of 1943, even as the German situation in Africa became increasingly precarious. To ensure that the inevitable defeat in Africa would not be associated with Rommel's name, Goebbels had the [[Oberkommando des Heeres|Army High Command]] announce in May 1943 that Rommel was on a two-month leave for health reasons.{{sfn|Reuth|2005|pp=154–158}}{{refn|group=N|[[Peter Lieb]]: "Hitler was well aware that it would be unwise [...] to link the downfall of Army Group Africa to the name of Rommel, the child of Joseph Goebbel's propaganda machinery."{{sfn|Lieb|2014|p=113}}}} Instead, the campaign was presented by Berndt, who resumed his role in the Propaganda Ministry, as a ruse to tie down the British Empire while Germany was turning Europe into an impenetrable fortress with Rommel at the helm of this success. After the radio programme ran in May 1943, Rommel sent Berndt a case of cigars as a sign of his gratitude.{{sfn|Reuth|2005|pp=154–158}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-719-0243-33, Atlantikwall, Inspektion Erwin Rommel mit Offizieren.jpg|thumb|right|One of the many propaganda photographs of Rommel on inspection tours of the [[Atlantic Wall]]]]

Although Rommel then entered a period without a significant command, he remained a household name in Germany, synonymous with the aura of invincibility.{{sfn|Lieb|2014|pp=113–115, 117–118}} Hitler then made Rommel part of his defensive strategy for [[Fortress Europe]] (''Festung Europa'') by sending him to the West to inspect fortifications along the [[Atlantic Wall]]. Goebbels supported the decision, noting in his diary that Rommel was "undoubtedly the suitable man" for the task. The propaganda minister expected the move to reassure the German public and at the same time to have a negative impact on the Allied forces' morale.{{sfn|Lieb|2014|pp=117–118}}

In France, a Wehrmacht propaganda company frequently accompanied Rommel on his inspection trips to document his work for both domestic and foreign audiences.{{sfn|Lieb|2014|p=120}}{{sfn|Reuth|2005|p=159}} In May 1944 the German newsreels reported on Rommel's speech at a Wehrmacht conference, where he stated his conviction that "every single German soldier will make his contribution against the Anglo-American spirit that it deserves for its criminal and bestial air war campaign against our homeland." The speech led to an upswing in morale and sustained confidence in Rommel.{{sfn|Reuth|2005|pp=159–161}}

When Rommel was seriously wounded on 17 July 1944, the Propaganda Ministry undertook efforts to conceal the injury so as not to undermine domestic morale. Despite those, the news leaked to the British press. To counteract the rumours of a serious injury and even death, Rommel was required to appear at a 1 August press conference. On 3 August, the German press published an official report that Rommel had been injured in a car accident. Rommel noted in his diary his dismay at this twisting of the truth, belatedly realising how much the Reich propaganda was using him for its own ends.{{sfn|Reuth|2005|pp=159–161}}

=== Rommel's views on propaganda ===
Rommel was interested in propaganda beyond the promotion of his own image. In 1944, after visiting Rommel in France and reading his proposals on counteracting Allied propaganda, Alfred-Ingemar Berndt remarked: "He is also interested in this propaganda business and wants to develop it by all means. He has even thought and brought out practical suggestions for each program and subject."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Fischer|first1=Thomas|title=Propaganda-Star Ein Mythos entsteht|url=http://www.swr.de/rommel/propaganda-start/ein-mythos-entsteht/-/id=10224974/did=10224880/nid=10224974/ktgj7v/index.html|access-date=4 August 2016|date=2 September 2014|archive-date=29 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329060533/http://www.swr.de/rommel/propaganda-start/ein-mythos-entsteht/-/id=10224974/did=10224880/nid=10224974/ktgj7v/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Rommel saw the propaganda and education values in his and his nation's deeds (He also did value justice itself; according to Admiral Ruge's diary, Rommel told Ruge: "Justice is the indispensable foundation of a nation. Unfortunately, the higher-ups are not clean. The slaughterings are grave sins."{{sfn|Remy|2002|p=247}}) The key to the successful creating of an image, according to Rommel, was leading by example: {{blockquote|The men tend to feel no kind of contact with a commander who, they know, is sitting somewhere in headquarters. What they want is what might be termed a physical contact with him. In moments of panic, fatigue, or disorganization, or when something out of the ordinary has to be demanded from them, the personal example of the commander works wonders, especially if he has had the wit to create some sort of legend around himself.{{sfn|Rommel|1982|p=241}}}} He urged Axis authorities to treat the Arab with the utmost respect to prevent uprisings behind the front.{{sfn|Shepherd|2016|p=356}} He protested the use of propaganda at the cost of explicit military benefits though, criticising Hitler's headquarters for being unable to tell the German people and the world that El Alamein had been lost and preventing the evacuation of the German forces in Northern Africa in the process.{{sfn|Rommel|1982|p=324}}{{sfn|Perry|2012|p=170}} Ruge suggests that his chief treated his own fame as a kind of weapon.<ref name="Ruge160415"/>

In 1943, he surprised Hitler by proposing that a Jew should be made into a ''[[Gauleiter]]'' to prove to the world that Germany was innocent of accusations that Rommel had heard from the enemy's propaganda regarding the mistreatment of Jews. Hitler replied, "Dear Rommel, you understand nothing about my thinking at all."{{sfn|Fleischhauer|Friedmann|2012}}<ref name=FrankAllg112012>{{cite news |date=3 November 2012 |title=Der Mann wusste, dass der Krieg verloren ist |newspaper=Frankfurter Allgemeine |language=de |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/medien/hans-ulrich-wehler-zu-rommel-der-mann-wusste-dass-der-krieg-verloren-ist-11947572.html |access-date=15 June 2016 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208113358/https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/medien/hans-ulrich-wehler-zu-rommel-der-mann-wusste-dass-der-krieg-verloren-ist-11947572.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Cross of Iron: The Rise and Fall of the German War Machine, 1918–1945 By John Mosier">{{cite book|last1=By John Mosier|first1=John|title=Cross of Iron: The Rise and Fall of the German War Machine, 1918–1945|date=2006|isbn=978-0-8050-8321-7|page=41|publisher=Henry Holt and Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrMt1_4KmAAC&pg=PA41}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Knab|first1=Jakob|title=Falsche Glorie: das Traditionsverständnis der Bundeswehr|date=1995|publisher=Ch. Links Verlag |isbn=3-86153-089-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MnH8gY4B2zMC&pg=PA79}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=September 2021}}