Editing Anthropology (section)

=== Nature, science, and technology ===
{{Cyber anthropology}}

====Cyborg====
{{main|Cyborg anthropology}}
Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the [[American Anthropological Association]]'s annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to [[science and technology studies|STS]] and the [[Society for the Social Studies of Science]].<ref>Dumit, Joseph. Davis-Floyd, Robbie (2001). "Cyborg Anthropology". in ''Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women''. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-92092-2}}.</ref> [[Donna Haraway]]'s 1985 ''[[Cyborg Manifesto]]'' could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings.{{cn|date=September 2022}}

==== Digital ====
{{main|Digital anthropology}}
Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology and extends to various areas where anthropology and [[technology]] intersect. It is sometimes grouped with [[cultural anthropology|sociocultural anthropology]], and sometimes considered part of [[material culture]]. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.studyguide.aau.dk/programmes/postgraduate/53203/ | title=Techno-Anthropology course guide | publisher=Aalborg University | access-date=14 March 2013 | archive-date=2 April 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402105317/http://www.studyguide.aau.dk/programmes/postgraduate/53203/ | url-status=live }}</ref> digital ethnography, cyberanthropology,<ref>{{cite book | url=http://xirdalium.net/category/anthropology/cyberanthropology/ | title=Cyberanthropology | publisher=Peter Hammer Verlag Gmbh | year= 2011 | access-date=14 March 2013 | author=Knorr, Alexander | isbn=978-3-7795-0359-0 | archive-date=8 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508145701/http://xirdalium.net/category/anthropology/cyberanthropology/ | url-status=live }}</ref> and virtual anthropology.<ref>{{cite book | title=Virtual Anthropology: A guide to a new interdisciplinary field | publisher=Springer |author1=Weber, Gerhard |author2=Bookstein, Fred | year=2011 | isbn=978-3-211-48647-4}}</ref>

==== Ecological ====
{{main|Ecological anthropology}}
Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of [[cultural adaptation]]s to environments".<ref name="Kottak">{{cite book|last=Kottak|first=Conrad Phillip|title=Anthropology : appreciating human diversity|year=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-811699-5|pages=579–584|edition=14th}}</ref> The sub-field is also defined as, "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their [[biophysical environment]]".<ref name="Townsend">{{cite book|last=Townsend|first=Patricia K.|title=Environmental anthropology : from pigs to policies|year=2009|publisher=Waveland Press|location=Prospect Heights, Ill.|isbn=978-1-57766-581-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/environmentalant0000town/page/104 104]|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/environmentalant0000town/page/104}}</ref> The focus of its research concerns "how cultural [[beliefs]] and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environments change across space and time.<ref name="Kottak CP 1999">{{cite journal|last1=Kottak|first1=Conrad P.|jstor=683339|title=The New Ecological Anthropology|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=101|issue=1|pages=23–35|year=1999|doi=10.1525/aa.1999.101.1.23|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227632647|hdl=2027.42/66329|hdl-access=free|access-date=10 November 2016|archive-date=29 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929001011/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227632647|url-status=live}}</ref> The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is [[political ecology]]. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more.<ref name="Pyke G 1984">{{cite journal|last1=Pyke|first1=G H|title=Optimal Foraging Theory: A Critical Review|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=15|page=523|year=1984|issue=1 |doi=10.1146/annurev.es.15.110184.002515|bibcode=1984AnRES..15..523P |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243636746|access-date=10 November 2016|archive-date=3 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403005941/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243636746|url-status=live}}</ref> The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park.<ref name="Checker M 2005">{{cite book|author=Melissa Checker|title=Polluted promises: environmental racism and the search for justice in a southern town|url=https://archive.org/details/pollutedpromises0000chec|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-1657-1}}</ref>

==== Environment ====
Social sciences, like anthropology, can provide interdisciplinary approaches to the environment. Professor Kay Milton, Director of the Anthropology research network in the School of History and Anthropology,<ref>{{cite web|title=Milton, Kay 1951|url=http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n93016959/|url-status=live|access-date=2 November 2021|website=OCLC WorldCat Identities|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102211940/http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n93016959/ |archive-date=2 November 2021 }}</ref> describes anthropology as distinctive, with its most distinguishing feature being its interest in non-industrial indigenous and traditional societies. Anthropological theory is distinct because of the consistent presence of the concept of culture; not an exclusive topic but a central position in the study and a deep concern with the human condition. Milton describes three trends that are causing a fundamental shift in what characterizes anthropology: dissatisfaction with the cultural relativist perspective, reaction against cartesian dualisms which obstructs progress in theory (nature culture divide), and finally an increased attention to globalization (transcending the barriers or time/space).

Environmental discourse appears to be characterized by a high degree of globalization. (The troubling problem is borrowing non-indigenous practices and creating standards, concepts, philosophies and practices in western countries.) Anthropology and environmental discourse now have become a distinct position in anthropology as a discipline. Knowledge about diversities in human culture can be important in addressing environmental problems - anthropology is now a study of human ecology. Human activity is the most important agent in creating environmental change, a study commonly found in human ecology which can claim a central place in how environmental problems are examined and addressed. Other ways anthropology contributes to environmental discourse is by being theorists and analysts, or by refinement of definitions to become more neutral/universal, etc. In exploring environmentalism - the term typically refers to a concern that the environment should be protected, particularly from the harmful effects of human activities. Environmentalism itself can be expressed in many ways. Anthropologists can open the doors of environmentalism by looking beyond industrial society, understanding the opposition between industrial and non-industrial relationships, knowing what ecosystem people and biosphere people are and are affected by, dependent and independent variables, "primitive" ecological wisdom, diverse environments, resource management, diverse cultural traditions, and knowing that environmentalism is a part of culture.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Milton|first=Kay|title=Environmentalism and Cultural Theory; Exploring the Role of Anthropology in Environmental Discourse.|publisher=Routledge Press|year=1996|location=New York.}}</ref>