Editing Age of Enlightenment (section)

==Society and culture==
[[File:Josef II medal.jpg|thumb|A medal minted during the reign of [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]], commemorating his grant of religious liberty to Jews and [[Protestants]] in Hungary—another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of [[serfdom]].]]

In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment.

One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the [[public sphere]], a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century.<ref>James Van Horn Melton, ''The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe'' (2001), p. 4.</ref> Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern," and that argument was founded on reason.<ref>Jürgen Habermas, ''The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere,'' (1989), pp. 36, 37.</ref> Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is [[Critical thinking|critical]]), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.<ref>Melton, 8.</ref>

[[File:Alexandre humboldt.jpg|thumb|upright|left|German explorer [[Alexander von Humboldt]] showed his disgust for slavery and often criticized the colonial policies—he always acted out of a deeply humanistic conviction, borne by the ideas of the Enlightenment.<ref>Nicolaas A. Rupke (2008). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_fXXRzidVKMC Alexander Von Humboldt: A Metabiography].''" University of Chicago Press. p. 138 {{ISBN|978-0-226-73149-0}}</ref>]]
The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of [[capitalism]]. The modern nation state in its consolidation of public power created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's [[autonomy]] and [[self-awareness]], as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions, and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the [[Republic of Letters]].<ref>Melton, 4, 5. Habermas, 14–26.</ref> In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the king's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Daniel Brewer |title=The Cambridge Companion to the French Enlightenment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mry1BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT91 |year=2014 |publisher=Cambridge UP |pages=91ff |isbn=978-1-316-19432-4}}</ref>

The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the [[Industrial Revolution]]: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century."<ref>Outram, Dorinda. ''The Enlightenment'' (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 12.</ref> Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas."<ref>Outram 2005, p. 13.</ref>

The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity—the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: [[Marquis de Condorcet|Condorcet]] contrasted "opinion" with populace, [[Jean-François Marmontel|Marmontel]] "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert|d'Alembert]] the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude."<ref>Chartier, 27.</ref> Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes.<ref>Mona Ozouf, {{"'}}Public Opinion' at the End of the Old Regime"</ref> Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.

===Implications in the arts===
Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts.<ref>David Beard and Kenneth Gloag, ''Musicology, The Key Concepts'' (New York: Routledge, 2005), 58.</ref> Emphasis on learning, art, and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.<ref>J. Peter Burkholder, Donald J. Grout, and Claude V. Palisca, ''A History of Western Music, Seventh Edition,'' (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2006), 475.</ref>

[[File:George Frideric Handel by Balthasar Denner.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[George Frideric Handel]]]]
As musicians depended more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]], for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]] and Mozart, with their [[Classical period (music)|Viennese Classical]] styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.<ref name="ReferenceA">Beard and Gloag, ''Musicology,'' 59.</ref>

The desire to explore, record, and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Rousseau's ''Dictionnaire de musique'' (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was [[Charles Burney]]'s ''A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period'' (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time.<ref name="ReferenceB">Beard and Gloag, ''Musicology,'' 60.</ref> Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, [[Rose Rosengard Subotnik]]'s ''Deconstructive Variations'' (subtitled ''Music and Reason in Western Society'') compares Mozart's ''Die Zauberflöte'' (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment."<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music.<ref name="ReferenceC">Burkholder, Grout, and Palisca, ''A History of Western Music,'' 475.</ref> Music publishers began to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>