Editing Unification of Italy (section)

==Culture and Risorgimento==
===Art===
[[File:S. croce, tomba vittorio alfieri.JPG|thumb|upright|Mourning [[Italia turrita]] on the tomb to Vittorio Alfieri by [[Antonio Canova]]]]
In art, this period was characterised by the [[Neoclassicism]] that draws inspiration from the "classical" art and culture of [[Ancient Greece]] or [[Ancient Rome]]. The main Italian sculptor was [[Antonio Canova]] who became famous for his [[marble sculpture]]s that delicately rendered [[nudity|nude]] flesh. The mourning [[Italia turrita]] on the tomb to [[Vittorio Alfieri]] is one of the main works of Risorgimento by Canova. By this time, in sculpture, a veiled woman in the style of the [[Veiled Rebecca]] of Benzoni had become an allegory for [[Italian unification]].<ref name=met>{{cite web |url=https://mymodernmet.com/the-veiled-virgin-sculpture/ |title=Exquisite 19th-Century Sculpture Cloaked in a 'Translucent' Marble Veil |last=Richman-Abdou |first=Kelly |date=27 January 2019 |website=My Modern Met |access-date=1 October 2019 }}</ref>

[[Francesco Hayez]] was another remarkable artist of this period whose works often contain allegories about Italian unification. His most known painting ''[[The Kiss (Hayez)|The Kiss]]'' aims to portray the spirit of the [[Risorgimento]]: the man wears red, white and green, representing the Italian patriots fighting for independence from the [[Austro-Hungarian empire]] while the girl's pale blue dress signifies France, which in 1859 (the year of the painting's creation) made an alliance with the [[The Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia]] enabling the latter to unify the many states of the Italian peninsula into the new kingdom of Italy. Hayez's three paintings on the ''[[Sicilian Vespers]]'' are an implicit protest against the foreign domination of Italy.

[[Andrea Appiani]], [[Domenico Induno]], and [[Gerolamo Induno]] are also known for their patriotic canvases. The Risorgimento was also represented by works not necessarily linked to Neoclassicism—as in the case of [[Giovanni Fattori]] who was one of the leaders of the group known as the [[Macchiaioli]] and who soon became a leading Italian [[En plein air|plein-airist]], painting landscapes, rural scenes, and military life during the Italian unification.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1848c.htm|title=Risorgimento – Pensiero e cultura – 1848|publisher=Cronlogia.leonardo.it|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006085909/http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1848c.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
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===Literature===
[[File:Francesco Hayez 040.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alessandro Manzoni]] is famous for the novel ''[[The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)|The Betrothed]]'' (1827), generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature.<ref name="britannica">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alessandro-Manzoni|title=Alessandro Manzoni &#124; Italian author|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=18 May 2023}}</ref> He contributed to the nationwide use of the Italian language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://manzoni.classicauthors.net/IPromessiSposiOrTheBetrothed/IPromessiSposiOrTheBetrothed1.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718073016/http://manzoni.classicauthors.net/IPromessiSposiOrTheBetrothed/IPromessiSposiOrTheBetrothed1.html|url-status=dead|title=I Promessi sposi or The Betrothed|archivedate=18 July 2011}}</ref>]]
The most well known writer of Risorgimento is [[Alessandro Manzoni]], whose works are a symbol of the Italian unification, both for its patriotic message and because of his efforts in the development of the modern, unified [[Italian language]]. He is famous for the novel ''[[The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)|The Betrothed]]'' (orig. Italian: ''I Promessi Sposi'') (1827), generally ranked among the masterpieces of [[world literature]].

[[Vittorio Alfieri]], was the founder of a new school in the Italian drama, expressed in several occasions his suffering about the foreign domination's tyranny.

[[Ugo Foscolo]] describes in his works the passion and love for the fatherland and the glorious history of the [[Italian people]]; these two concepts are respectively well expressed in two masterpieces, ''[[The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis]]'' and ''[[Dei Sepolcri]]''.

[[Vincenzo Monti]], known for the [[Italian language|Italian]] translation of the ''[[Iliad]]'', described in his works both enthusiasms and disappointments of Risorgimento until his death.

[[Giovanni Berchet]] wrote a poetry characterized by a high moral, popular and social content; he also contributed to ''[[Il Conciliatore]]'', a progressive bi-weekly scientific and literary journal, influential in the early [[Risorgimento]] that was published in [[Milan]] from September 1818 until October 1819 when it was closed by the Austrian censors; its writers included also [[Ludovico di Breme]], [[Giuseppe Nicolini (writer)|Giuseppe Nicolini]], and [[Silvio Pellico]].

[[Giacomo Leopardi]] was one of the most important poets of Risorgimento thanks to works such as ''[[Giacomo Leopardi#First Canti|Canzone all'Italia]]'' and ''[[Giacomo Leopardi#Il Risorgimento|Risorgimento]]''.

[[File:Francesco De Sanctis ritratto.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Portrait of [[Francesco De Sanctis]] (1890) by [[Francesco Saverio Altamura]]]]
[[Niccolò Tommaseo]], the editor of the ''Italian Language Dictionary'' in eight volumes, was a precursor of the [[Italian irredentism]] and his works are a rare examples of a metropolitan culture above nationalism; he supported the liberal revolution headed by [[Daniele Manin]] against the [[Austrian Empire]] and he will always support the unification of Italy.

[[Francesco de Sanctis]] was one of the most important scholars of Italian language and literature in the 19th century; he supported the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states|Revolution of 1848]] in [[Naples]] and for this reason he was imprisoned for three years; his reputation as a lecturer on [[Dante]] in [[Turin]] brought him the appointment of professor at [[ETH Zürich]] in 1856; he returned to [[Naples]] as Minister of Public Education after the unification of Italy.

The writer and patriot [[Luigi Settembrini]] published anonymously the ''Protest of the People of the Two Sicilies'', a scathing indictment of the Bourbon government and was imprisoned and exiled several times by the Bourbons because of his support to Risorgimento; after the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, he was appointed professor of [[Italian literature]] at the [[University of Naples]].

[[Ippolito Nievo]] is another main representative of Risorgimento with his novel ''[[Ippolito Nievo|Confessioni d'un italiano]]''; he fought with [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]]'s [[Expedition of the Thousand]].

The Risorgimento was also depicted in famous novels: ''[[The Leopard]]'' written by [[Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa]], ''[[Heart (novel)|Heart]]'' by [[Edmondo De Amicis]], and ''[[The Little World of the Past]]'' by [[Antonio Fogazzaro]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.giorgioweiss.it/node/120|title=Risorgimento e poesia – Giorgio Weiss|publisher=Giorgioweiss.it|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=22 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222040120/http://www.giorgioweiss.it/node/120|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Music===
[[File:Verdi palermo bust 200805.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Verdi]]'s bust outside the [[Teatro Massimo]] in Palermo]]
Risorgimento won the support of many leading Italian opera composers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Körner |first1=Axel |title=Opera and nation in nineteenth-century Italy: conceptual and methodological approaches |journal=Journal of Modern Italian Studies |date=September 2012 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=393–399 |doi=10.1080/1354571X.2012.690577 }}</ref> Their librettos often saw a delicate balance between European romantic narratives and dramatic themes evoking nationalistic sentiments. Ideas expressed in operas stimulated the political mobilisation in Italy and among the cultured classes of Europe who appreciated Italian opera. Furthermore, Mazzini and many other nationalists found inspiration in musical discourses.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorba |first1=Carlotta |title=Between cosmopolitanism and nationhood: Italian opera in the early nineteenth century |journal=Modern Italy |date=February 2014 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=53–67 |doi=10.1080/13532944.2013.871420 }}</ref>

In his ''[[L'italiana in Algeri]]'' ('The Italian Girl in Algiers'), [[Gioachino Rossini]] expressed his support to the unification of Italy; the patriotic line ''Pensa alla patria, e intrepido il tuo dover adempi: vedi per tutta Italia rinascere gli esempi d’ardir e di valor'' ('Think about the fatherland and intrepid do your duty: see for all Italy the birth of the examples of courage and value') was censored in the [[Kingdom of Two Sicilies]].

[[Vincenzo Bellini]] was a secret member of the Carbonari and in his masterpiece ''[[I puritani]] (The Puritans)'', the last part of Act 2 is an allegory to Italian unification. Another Bellini opera, ''[[Norma (opera)|Norma]]'', was at the center of an unexpected standing ovation during its performance in [[Milan]] in 1859: while the [[choir|chorus]] was performing ''Guerra, guerra! Le galliche selve'' ('War, war! The Gallic forests') in Act 2, the Italians began to greet the chorus with loud applause and to yell the word ''War!'' several times towards the [[Austrian Empire|Austrian officers]] at the [[opera house]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sivainitalia.it/italia/regno.php?page=4|title=Dal Risorgimento all'Italia unita|publisher=Sivainitalia.it|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102212/http://www.sivainitalia.it/italia/regno.php?page=4|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The relationship between [[Gaetano Donizetti]] and the Risorgimento is still controversial. Although [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] tried to use some of Donizetti's works for promoting the Italian cause, Donizetti had always preferred not to get involved in politics.<ref>Rosa Maria Mazzola, [http://www.piranesi150.altervista.org/pagina-65879.html "Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and the Risorgimento"] Piranesi150.altervista.org, Retrieved 9 September 2014</ref>

[[File:Viva VERDI grafitti.jpeg|thumb|left|Patriots scrawling "Viva VERDI" on walls]]
Historians vigorously debate how political were the operas of [[Giuseppe Verdi]] (1813–1901). In particular, the chorus of the Hebrew slaves (known as "[[Va, pensiero]]") from the third act of the opera ''[[Nabucco]]'' was intended to be an anthem for Italian patriots, who were seeking to unify their country and free it from foreign control in the years up to 1861 (the chorus's theme of exiles singing about their homeland, and its lines such as ''O mia patria, si bella e perduta—'O my country, so lovely and so lost'—were thought to have resonated with many Italians).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/NATMUSIC.html |title=Modern History Sourcebook: Music and Nationalism |publisher=Fordham.edu |access-date=31 May 2015}}</ref> Beginning in Naples in 1859 and spreading throughout Italy, the slogan "Viva VERDI" was used as an acronym for '''''Viva V'''ittorio '''E'''manuele '''R'''e '''''D'''<nowiki>'</nowiki>'''I'''talia ('[[Vive, Viva|Viva]] Victor Emmanuel King of Italy'), referring to [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]].<ref>Parker 1998, p. 942{{full|date=April 2025}}</ref><ref>Budden 1973, Vol. 3, p. 80{{full|date=April 2025}}</ref>

Franco Della Peruta argues in favour of close links between the operas and the Risorgimento, emphasizing Verdi's patriotic intent and links to the values of the Risorgimento. Verdi started as a republican, became a strong supporter of Cavour and entered the Italian parliament on Cavour's suggestion. His politics caused him to be frequently in trouble with the Austrian censors. Verdi's main works of 1842–49 were especially relevant to the struggle for independence, including ''Nabucco'' (1842), ''[[I Lombardi alla prima crociata]]'' (1843), ''[[Ernani]]'' (1844), ''[[Attila (opera)|Attila]]'' (1846), ''[[Macbeth (Verdi)|Macbeth]]'' (1847), and ''[[La battaglia di Legnano]]'' (1848). However, starting in the 1850s, his operas showed few patriotic themes because of the heavy censorship of the absolutist regimes in power.

Verdi later became disillusioned by politics, but he was personally active part in the political world of events of the Risorgimento and was elected to the first Italian parliament in 1861.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Franco |last1=DellaPeruta |title=Verdi e il Risorgimento |journal=Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento |date=2001 |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=3–24 }}</ref> Likewise Marco Pizzo argues that after 1815 music became a political tool, and many songwriters expressed ideals of freedom and equality. Pizzo says Verdi was part of this movement, for his operas were inspired by the love of country, the struggle for Italian independence, and speak to the sacrifice of patriots and exiles.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Marco |last1=Pizzo |title=Verdi, Musica e Risorgimento |journal=Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento |date=2001 |volume=87 |issue=supplement 4 |pages=37–44 }}</ref> On the other side of the debate, [[Mary Ann Smart]] argues that music critics at the time seldom mentioned any political themes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smart |first1=Mary Ann |title=How political were Verdi's operas? Metaphors of progress in the reception of I Lombardi alla prima crociata |journal=Journal of Modern Italian Studies |date=March 2013 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=190–204 |doi=10.1080/1354571X.2012.753009 }}</ref> Likewise [[Roger Parker]] argues that the political dimension of Verdi's operas was exaggerated by nationalistic historians looking for a hero in the late 19th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parker |first1=Roger |title=Verdi politico : a wounded cliché regroups |journal=Journal of Modern Italian Studies |date=September 2012 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=427–436 |doi=10.1080/1354571X.2012.690581 }}</ref>
[[File:Final scene from the opera Risorgimento!.jpg|thumb|The final scene of the opera ''Risorgimento!'' (2011) by [[Lorenzo Ferrero]]]]
Giuseppe Verdi's ''Nabucco'' and the Risorgimento are the subject of a 2011 opera, ''[[Risorgimento! (opera)|Risorgimento!]]'' by Italian composer [[Lorenzo Ferrero]], written to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Italian unification.

===Films===
''[[The Leopard (1963 film)|The Leopard]]'' is a film from 1963, based on the novel by [[Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa]], and directed by [[Luchino Visconti]]. It features [[Burt Lancaster]] as the eponymous character, the Prince of Salina. The film depicts his reaction to the Risorgimento, and his vain attempts to retain his social standing.

There are other movies set in this period:
* ''[[1860 (film)|1860]]'' (1934), by [[Alessandro Blasetti]]
* ''[[Piccolo mondo antico (film)|Piccolo mondo antico]]'' (1941), by [[Mario Soldati]]
* ''[[Un garibaldino al convento]]'' (1942), by [[Vittorio De Sica]]
* ''[[Heart and Soul (1948 film)|Heart and Soul]]'' (1948), by [[Vittorio De Sica]]
* ''[[Senso (film)|Senso]]'' (1954), by [[Luchino Visconti]]
* ''[[Garibaldi (film)|Garibaldi]]'' (1961), by [[Roberto Rossellini]]
* ''[[1870 (film)|1870]]'' (1971), by [[Alfredo Giannetti]]
* ''[[Passion of Love]]'' (1981), by [[Ettore Scola]] (later adapted by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and [[James Lapine]] into the Tony Award-winning Broadway musical ''[[Passion (musical)|Passion]]'')
* ''[[Noi credevamo]]'' (2010), by [[Mario Martone]]