Editing Sanskrit (section)

== Influence on other languages ==
{{see also|Sanskritisation (language)|Indosphere|Greater India}}

For nearly 2,000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, [[Inner Asia]], Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia.{{sfn|Pollock|2001}} A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of [[Indian epic poetry]]—the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''. The deviations from {{IAST|[[Pāṇini]]}} in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from [[Prakrit]]s, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian.{{Sfn|Oberlies|2003|pp=xxvii–xxix}} Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ''ārṣa'' (आर्ष), meaning 'of the [[rishi|ṛṣis]]', the traditional title for the ancient authors. In some contexts, there are also more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper. [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] is a literary language heavily influenced by the [[Middle Indo-Aryan languages]], based on early Buddhist Prakrit texts which subsequently assimilated to the Classical Sanskrit standard in varying degrees.<ref name="Edgerton 2004">{{cite book |last=Edgerton|first=Franklin|title=Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit grammar and dictionary|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=Delhi|year=2004|isbn=978-81-215-1110-0}}</ref>

=== Indian subcontinent ===
Sanskrit has greatly influenced the languages of India that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base; for instance, [[Standard Hindi|Hindi]] is a "Sanskritised register" of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]. All modern [[Indo-Aryan languages]], as well as [[Munda languages|Munda]] and [[Dravidian languages]] have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (''[[tatsama]]'' words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (''[[tadbhava]]'' words). Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated at fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as the literary forms of [[Malayalam]] and [[Kannada]].{{sfn|Staal|1963|p=261}} Literary texts in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] are [[Lexicon|lexically]] Sanskrit or Sanskritised to an enormous extent, perhaps seventy percent or more.<ref name="Rao 2002 p. ">{{cite book|last=Rao|first=Velcheru|title=Classical Telugu poetry an anthology|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley, Calif|year=2002|isbn=978-0-520-22598-5|page=3}}</ref> [[Marathi language|Marathi]] is another prominent language in Western India, that derives most of its words and [[Marathi grammar]] from Sanskrit.<ref>Sugam Marathi Vyakaran & Lekhana. 2007. Nitin publications. Author: M. R. Walimbe.</ref> Sanskrit words are often preferred in the literary texts in Marathi over corresponding colloquial Marathi word.<ref>Carey, William (1805). ''A Grammar of the Marathi Language''. Serampur [''[[sic]]'']: Serampore Mission Press. {{ISBN|9781108056311}}.</ref>

There has been a profound influence of Sanskrit on the lexical and grammatical systems of Dravidian languages. As per Dalby, India has been a single cultural area for about two millennia which has helped Sanskrit influence on all the Indic languages.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Dalby|first=A|title=Dictionary of languages : the definitive reference to more than 400 languages|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2004|location=New York|page=155}}</ref> Emeneau and Burrow mention the tendency "for all four of the Dravidian literary languages in South to make literary use of total Sanskrit lexicon indiscriminately".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Emeneau |first1=M. |last2=Burrow |first2=T. |title=Dravidian Borrowings from Indo-Aryan|publisher=University of California|year=1962}}</ref> There are a large number of loanwords found in the vocabulary of the three major Dravidian languages Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu.<ref name=":0" /> Tamil also has significant loanwords from Sanskrit.<ref name=":3" /> Krishnamurthi mentions that although it is not clear when the Sanskrit influence happened on the Dravidian languages, it might have been around the 5th century BCE at the time of separation of Tamil and Kannada from a [[Tamil–Kannada languages|common ancestral stage]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krishnamurti|first=Bhadriraju|title=The Dravidian languages. ‌|publisher=Cambridge University Press.|year=2003|location=Cambridge|page=480}}</ref> ‌The borrowed words are classified into two types based on phonological integration – ''tadbhava'' – those words derived from Prakrit and ''tatsama'' – unassimilated loanwords from Sanskrit.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Grant|first=A|title=The Oxford handbook of language|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2019|location=New York|pages=Section 23.2, 23.3}}</ref>

Strazny mentions that "so massive has been the influence that it is hard to utter Sanskrit words have influenced Kannada from the early times".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strazny|first=Philipp|title=Encyclopedia of linguistics|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn|year=2005|location=New York|pages=501–502}}</ref> The first document in Kannada, the Halmidi inscription has a large number of Sanskrit words. As per Kachru, the influence has not only been on single lexical items in Kannada but also on "long nominal compounds and complicated syntactic expressions". New words have been created in Kannada using Sanskrit derivational prefixes and suffixes like ''vikēndrīkaraṇa, anilīkaraṇa, bahīskruṭa''. Similar stratification is found in verb morphology. Sanskrit words readily undergo verbalization in Kannada, verbalizing suffixes as in: ''chāpisu, dauḍāyisu, ravānisu.''<ref>{{Cite book |editor1-last=Kachru |editor1-first=B.B. |editor2-last=Kachru |editor2-first=Yamuna |editor3-last=Sridhar |editor3-first=S.N |title=Language in South Asia|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=331–332}}</ref>

George mentions that "No other Dravidian language has been so deeply influenced by Sanskrit as Malayalam".<ref>{{Cite book |last=George |first=K.M. |year=1998 |title=Modern Indian Literature |volume=1 |page=8 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |location=New Delhi}}</ref> According to Lambert, Malayalam is so immensely Sanskritised that every Sanskrit word can be used in Malayalam by integrating "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Lambert |first=H.M. |date=January 1958 |conference=Contemporary Indian Literature: A symposium |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |place=New Delhi |quote=Foreword by S.&nbsp;Radhakrishnan, Ministry of Information, Delhi, p.&nbsp;8. |title=[presentation title not cited] |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=90 |issue=1–2 |page=89 |doi=10.1017/s0035869x00116910 |issn=1356-1863}}</ref> Loanwords have been integrated into Malayalam by "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant. These phonological changes are either by replacement of a vowel as in ''sant-''am coming from Sanskrit ''santa'', ''sāgar''-am from ''sāgara'', or addition of prothetic vowel as in ''aracan'' from ''rājā-'', ''uruvam'' from ''rūpa'', ''codyam'' from ''sodhya''.<ref name=":1"/>

Hans Henrich et al. note that, the language of the pre-modern Telugu literature was also highly influenced by Sanskrit and was standardized between 11th and 14th&nbsp;centuries.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Hock |first1=Hans Henrich |last2=Bashir |first2=E. |last3=Subbarao |first3=K.V. |title=The languages and linguistics of South Asia a comprehensive guide.|publisher=Berlin De Gruyter Mouton|year=2016|page=95}}</ref> Aiyar has shown that in a class of ''tadbhavas'' in Telugu the first and second letters are often replaced by the third and fourth letters and fourth again replaced often by h. Examples of the same are: Sanskrit ''artha'' becomes ''ardhama'', ''vīthi'' becomes ''vidhi'', ''putra'' becomes ''bidda'', ''mukham'' becomes ''muhamu''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Aiyar|first=R Swaminatha|title=Dravidian theories|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1987|isbn=8120803310|page=294}}</ref>

[[Tamil language|Tamil]] also has been influenced by Sanskrit. Hans Henrich et al. mention that propagation of Jainism and Buddhism into south India had its influence.<ref name=":2" /> Shulman mentions that although contrary to the views held by Tamil purists, modern Tamil has been significantly influenced from Sanskrit, further states that "Indeed, there may well be more Sanskrit in Tamil than in the Sanskrit derived north-Indian vernaculars". Sanskrit words have been Tamilized through the "Tamil phonematic grid".<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Shulman|first=David Dean|title=Tamil : a biography|publisher=The Belknap Press Of Harvard University Press|year=2016|location=London|pages=12–14}}</ref>

=== Beyond the Indian subcontinent ===
{{multiple image
| perrow = 1
| total_width = 300
| image1 = A Sanskrit manuscript of Lotus Sutra in South Turkestan Brahmi script.jpg
| image2 = A palm leaf Sanskrit manuscript in Brahmi script from Miran China.jpg
| footer = Sanskrit has had a historical presence and influence in many parts of Asia. Above (top clockwise): [i] a Sanskrit manuscript from Turkestan, [ii] another from Miran-China.
}}
Sanskrit was a language for religious purposes and for the political elite in parts of medieval era Southeast Asia, Central Asia and East Asia, having been introduced in these regions mainly along with the spread of Buddhism. In some cases, it has competed with Pāli for prominence.{{sfn|Michael C. Howard|2012|p=21}}{{sfn|Burrow|2001|p=63}}

==== East Asia ====
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 300
| image1            = South Korea-Goheunggun-Neunggasa 5836-07 bronze bell.JPG
| image2            = Siddham alphabet by Kukai.svg
| footer            = [i] a bell with Sanskrit engravings in South Korea [ii] the [[Kūkai]] calligraphy of Siddham-Sanskrit in Japan
}}

[[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit|Buddhist Sanskrit]] has had a considerable influence on [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] such as Chinese, state William Wang and Chaofen Sun.<ref name="WangSun2015p5" /> Many words have been adopted from Sanskrit into Chinese, both in its historic religious discourse and everyday use.<ref name="WangSun2015p5">{{cite book |author1=William S.-Y. Wang |author2=Chaofen Sun |year=2015 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-985633-6 |pages=5–6, 12, 236–247 |quote=In chapter&nbsp;18, Shi Xiangdong makes it clear that the influence of Buddhist Sanskrit on the Chinese language has been considerable. Many words have crossed the line from religious discourse to everyday use.  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ}}</ref>{{efn|Examples of phonetically imported Sanskrit words in Chinese include samgha (Chinese: seng), bhiksuni (ni), kasaya (jiasha), namo or namas (namo), and nirvana (niepan). The list of phonetically transcribed and semantically translated words from Sanskrit into Chinese is substantial, states Xiangdong Shi.<ref name="WangSun2015p5"/>}} This process likely started about 200&nbsp;CE and continued through about 1400&nbsp;CE, with the efforts of monks such as Yuezhi, Anxi, Kangju, Tianzhu, Yan Fodiao, Faxian, Xuanzang and [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]].<ref name="WangSun2015p5" />

Further, as the Chinese languages and culture influenced the rest of East Asia, the ideas in Sanskrit texts and some of its linguistic elements migrated further.<ref name="OrzechSørensen2011">{{cite book |author1=Charles Orzech |author2=Henrik Sørensen |author3=Richard Payne |title=Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia |year=2011 |publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-18491-6 |pages=985–996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0XNX3N1a2AC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=William S.-Y. Wang |author2=Chaofen Sun |title=The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-985633-6 |pages=5–6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ}}</ref>

Many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. Chinese words like {{lang|zh|剎那}} ''chànà'' ([[Devanagari]]: क्षण ''{{IAST|kṣaṇa}}'' 'instantaneous period') were borrowed from Sanskrit. Many Sanskrit texts survive only in Tibetan collections of commentaries to the Buddhist teachings, the [[Tengyur]].

Sanskrit has also influenced the religious register of Japanese mostly through transliterations. These were borrowed from Chinese transliterations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nichiren Buddhism Library|url=https://www.nichirenlibrary.org/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222074700/http://www.nichirenlibrary.org/|archive-date=22 February 2015|website=nichirenlibrary.org}}</ref> In particular, the [[Shingon]] ({{Literal translation|True Words}}) sect of esoteric Buddhism has been relying on Sanskrit and original Sanskrit [[mantra]]s and writings, as a means of realizing Buddhahood.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Orzech|first1=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0XNX3N1a2AC&pg=PA985|title=Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia|last2=Sørensen|first2=Henrik|last3=Payne|first3=Richard|date=2011|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004184916|page=985}}</ref>

==== Southeast Asia ====
{{further|Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 300
| image1            = Sanskrit n Thai.jpg
| image2            = Cambodia-2742 (3621496153).jpg
| footer            = [i] the Thai script [ii] a Sanskrit inscription in Cambodia
}}

A large number of inscriptions in Sanskrit across Southeast Asia testify the influence the language held in these regions.{{sfn|Burrow|2001|pp=63, 64}}

Languages such as [[Indonesia language|Indonesian]], [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Lao language|Lao]] contain many [[loanword]]s from Sanskrit, as does [[Khmer language|Khmer]]. Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in [[Austronesian languages]], such as [[Javanese language|Javanese]], particularly the [[Old Javanese|older form]] in which nearly half the vocabulary is borrowed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zoetmulder |first=P.J. |title=Old Javanese-English Dictionary |year=1982 |url=http://sealang.net/ojed/ |access-date=29 October 2014 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601111918/http://sealang.net/ojed/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Other Austronesian languages, such as [[Malay language|Malay]] (descended into modern [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] standards) also derive [[List of loanwords in Indonesian#From Sanskrit|much of their vocabulary]] from Sanskrit. Similarly, [[Philippine languages]] such as [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] have [[List of loanwords in Tagalog#Sanskrit|some Sanskrit loanwords]], although more are derived from Spanish.

A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word ''[[Bahasa|bhāṣā]]'', or spoken language, which is used to refer to the names of many languages.<ref>{{cite book |title=Passport India |edition=3rd |type=eBook |page=15 |first=Manoj |last=Joshi |publisher=World Trade Press}}</ref>

To this day, Southeast Asian languages such as Thai are known to draw upon Sanskrit for technical vocabulary.{{sfn|Burrow|2001|p=64}}

=====Indonesia=====
{{further|List of Indic loanwords in Indonesian}}
[[Image:kutai Prasasti of Mulawarman.JPG|thumb|upright|The ancient [[Yūpa#Yūpa inscription in Indonesia|Yūpa]] inscription (one of the earliest and oldest Sanskrit texts written in ancient Indonesia) dating back to the [[4th century CE]] written by [[Brahmin]]s under the rule of King [[Mulavarman]] of the [[Kutai#History|Kutai Martadipura Kingdom]] located in [[East Kalimantan|eastern Borneo]]]]
The earliest Sanskrit text which was founded in the [[Indonesian Archipelago]] was at [[East Kalimantan|Eastern Borneo]] dating back to 400 CE known as the [[Yūpa#Yūpa inscription in Indonesia|Mulavarman inscription]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kulke |first=Hermann |title=A History of India |year=1998 |page=145 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9780415154826 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC |access-date=21 March 2023 |archive-date=23 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223185234/https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC |url-status=live }}</ref> This is one of the reason of strong influence of Indian culture that entered the [[Malay Archipelago]] during the [[Greater India|Indianization era]], and since then, Indian culture has been absorbed towards Indonesian culture and language. Thus, the Sanskrit culture in Indonesia exists not as a religious aspect but more towards a cultural aspect that has been present for generations, resulting in a more cultural rather than Hinduistic value of the [[Indonesian people]]. As a result, it is common to find Muslim or Christian Indonesians with names that have Indian or Sanskrit nuances. Unlike names derived from Sanskrit in [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Khmer language|Khmer]], the pronunciation of Sanskrit names in Indonesia is more similar to the original Indian pronunciation, except that "v" is changed to "w", for example, "Vishnu" in India will be spelled "Wisnu" in Indonesia.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

==== Rest of the world ====
In ancient and medieval times, several Sanskrit words in the field of food and spices made their way into European languages including Greek, Latin and later English. Some of these are ''pepper'', ''ginger'' and ''sugar''. English today has several [[List of English words of Sanskrit origin|words of Sanskrit origin]], most of them borrowed<ref>{{Citation|last1=Yule|first1=Henry|chapter=Gujputty to Hackery|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139197922.016|title=Hobson-Jobson: Being a Glossary of Anglo-Indian Colloquial Words and Phrases and of Kindred Terms Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive|pages=402–407|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-19792-2|access-date=2021-02-20|last2=Burnell|first2=Arthur Coke|year=2010|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139197922.016|archive-date=8 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208015307/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/hobsonjobson/hobsonjobson/87D9A7751CD751A9BB87C06C0A35C8DB|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Citation range includes only one clear example, Gunny (as in sack), on page 403. There must be a better source than random examples from a dictionary.|date=April 2021}} during the [[British Raj]] or later. Some of these words have in turn been borrowed by other European or world languages.