Editing Mercenary (section)

===Africa===

====Ancient Africa====
An early recorded use of foreign auxiliaries dates back to [[ancient Egypt]], the thirteenth century BC, when [[Pharaoh]] [[Ramesses II]] used 11,000 mercenaries during his battles. A long established foreign corps in the Egyptian forces were the [[Medjay]]—a generic term given to tribal scouts and light infantry recruited from [[Nubia]] serving from the late period of the [[Old Kingdom]] through that of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]. Other warriors recruited from outside the borders of [[Egypt]] included Libyan, Syrian and Canaanite contingents under the New Kingdom and Sherdens from Sardinia who appear in their distinctive horned helmets on wall paintings as body guards for Ramesses II.<ref>Healy, Mark; ''New Kingdom Egypt''; {{ISBN|1855322080}}; {{page needed|date=April 2022}}</ref> [[Celts|Celtic]] mercenaries were greatly employed in the [[Ancient Greece|Greek world]] (leading to the [[Brennus (3rd century BC)#Attack on Delphi|sack of Delphi]] and the Celtic settlement of [[Galatia]]). The Greek rulers of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], too, used Celtic mercenaries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/CELTS/2004-02/1077679998|title=Rootsweb: Celts in Egypt|publisher=Archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com|date=24 February 2004|access-date=17 October 2011|archive-date=3 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103115943/http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/CELTS/2004-02/1077679998|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Carthage]] was unique for relying primarily on mercenaries to fight its wars, particularly [[Gaul]] and [[Mercenaries of the ancient Iberian peninsula|Spanish mercenaries]].

====19th and 20th centuries====
{{See also|Mercenaries in Africa after 1960|Mercenaries from ex-USSR in Africa}}
[[File:Burnham in africa close up.jpg|right|thumb|[[Frederick Russell Burnham]] in Africa]]

In the 20th century, mercenaries in conflicts on the continent of Africa have in several cases brought about a swift end to bloody civil war by comprehensively defeating the rebel forces. {{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} There have been a number of unsavory incidents in the brushfire wars of Africa, some involving recruitment of European and American men "looking for adventure". {{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}

Many of the adventurers in Africa who have been described as mercenaries were in fact ideologically motivated to support particular governments, and would not fight "for the highest bidder". An example of this was the [[British South Africa Police]] (BSAP), a paramilitary, mounted infantry force formed by the [[British South Africa Company]] of [[Cecil Rhodes]] in 1889–1890 that evolved and continued until 1980.<ref>Peter Gibbs, Hugh Phillips, and Nick Russel, ''Blue and Old Gold: The History of the British South Africa Police, 1889–1980'' (Pinetown, South Africa: 30 Degrees South, 2010). {{ISBN|978-1920143350}}</ref>

Famous mercenaries in Africa include:
* [[Frederick Russell Burnham]] was an American scout for the British South Africa Company who served in both the [[First Matabele War]] (1893–94) and the [[Second Matabele War]] (1896–97). He effectively ended the Second Matabele War by assassinating the Ndebele religious leader, Mlimo,<ref>{{cite news| date = 25 June 1896| title = Killed the Matabele God: Burnham, the American Scout, May End Uprising| journal = The New York Times| issn = 0093-1179| url = https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1896/06/25/108240032.pdf| access-date = 28 September 2007| archive-date = 10 September 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200910020801/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1896/06/25/108240032.pdf| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia| last = Farwell| first = Byron| author-link = Byron Farwell| encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Land Warfare: An Illustrated World View| publisher=W. W. Norton| year = 2001| isbn = 978-0393047707| page = 539 |title=Matabele Wars}}</ref> but Burnham is best known in this war for teaching [[American Frontier]] scouting to [[Robert Baden-Powell]] and inspiring him to found the [[Scouting|boy scouts]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=DeGroot |first=E.B. |journal=[[Boys' Life]] |title=Veteran Scout |date=July 1944 |pages=6–7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FDDyrmwdQKIC |access-date=16 July 2010 |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215134438/https://books.google.com/books?id=FDDyrmwdQKIC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Baden-Powell |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell |title=Scouting for Boys: A Handbook for Instruction in Good Citizenship |publisher=H. Cox |year=1908 |location=London |isbn=978-0486457192 |no-pp=true |page=xxiv}}</ref> In the [[Second Boer War]] (1900–1904), Burnham served as Chief of Scouts to the British Army. He was presented the Cross of the [[Distinguished Service Order]] for his heroism and given a commission as Major in the British Army by [[King Edward VII]] personally even though he declined to renounce his American citizenship.<ref>{{cite news |title=Personal. |url=http://find.galegroup.com/iln/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=ILN&userGroupName=loc_main&tabID=T003&docPage=article&docId=HN3100473378&type=multipage&contentSet=LTO&version=1.0 |newspaper= [[Illustrated London News]]|location= London, England |date=11 January 1902 |issue= 3273 |page=44 |quote= Major F.R. Burnham, upon whom the D.S.O. was recently conferred by his Majesty, is himself the King of Army Scouts... His brilliant achievements have been rewarded by his receiving a commission as Major in the British Army. |access-date=30 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Chief of Scouts. Major Burnham's Adventures. |url=http://find.galegroup.com/ttda/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=TTDA&userGroupName=loc_main&tabID=T003&docPage=article&searchType=BasicSearchForm&docId=CS168762249&type=multipage&contentSet=LTO&version=1.0 |newspaper= [[The Times]]|location= London, England |date=9 December 1926 |issue= 44450 |page=10 |quote= The author of these reminiscences has never renounced the American citizenship which was his by birth and parentage, yet his military title, formally confirmed by King Edward, is British. |access-date=30 August 2012}}</ref> Burnham's real-life adventures also heavily influenced [[H. Rider Haggard]] who created the fictional [[Allan Quatermain]] adventurer, a character who later was transformed by [[George Lucas]] into [[Indiana Jones (character)|Indiana Jones]].<ref name="hough2010">{{cite journal|last=Hough |first=Harold |date=January 2010 |title=The Arizona Miner and Indiana Jones |journal=Miner News |url=http://www.minersnews.com/Dec09Jan10/AZMiner.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526114626/http://www.minersnews.com/Dec09Jan10/AZMiner.html |archive-date=26 May 2013 }}</ref>
* [[Mike Hoare]] was a British career soldier who served with distinction in the [[London Irish Rifles]] during [[World War II]]. He later emigrated to [[South Africa]], and was contracted by the [[State of Katanga]] in the early 1960s to form "''[[4 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo)|4 Commando (Force Katangaise)]]''", a unit of foreign military advisers in the local [[gendarmerie]]. Most of Hoare's recruits were [[Belgian people|Belgian]]s or South Africans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mercenary-wars.net/congo/list-of-congo-soldiers.html|title=A list of known Soldiers of Fortune who served in the Congo conflict some time during the 1960's|website=www.mercenary-wars.net|access-date=10 May 2014|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225030955/http://www.mercenary-wars.net/congo/list-of-congo-soldiers.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> After Katanga's integration in 1963, Hoare remained active in Congo affairs. He was solicited by General [[Mobutu Sese Seko|Joseph-Desiré Mobutu]] in 1964 to form ''"[[5 Commando (Congo)|5 Commando]]"'' – a second mercenary force raised to crush the [[Simba Rebellion]], which included European adventurers of at least twenty nationalities.<ref>''Congo Mercenary,'' Mike Hoare. London: Hale (1967), {{ISBN|0709043759}}; Boulder, CO: Paladin Press, {{ISBN|978-1581606393}}</ref> Hoare later resurfaced in 1981, shortly after [[France-Albert René]]'s ascension in the [[Seychelles]], attempting to carry out a coup d'état on behalf of former president [[James Mancham]]. His troops were intercepted shortly after debarking on [[Mahé, Seychelles|Mahé]] and only escaped by hijacking an [[Air India]] Boeing, which they flew to [[Durban]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Captain-hosts-his-hijacker/articleshow/2168068.cms|title=Captain hosts his hijacker|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=13 October 2006 |access-date=10 May 2014|archive-date=4 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904081128/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Captain-hosts-his-hijacker/articleshow/2168068.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Bob Denard]] was a former [[List of intelligence agencies of France|French intelligence]] operative, policeman, and dedicated anti-communist who saw action during the [[First Indochina War]] and [[Algerian War|Algerian War of Independence]].<ref name=Fig>[http://www.lefigaro.fr/france/20071014.WWW000000028_l_ancien_mercenaire_bob_denard_est_mort.html L'ancien mercenaire Bob Denard est mort] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104091904/http://www.lefigaro.fr/france/20071014.WWW000000028_l_ancien_mercenaire_bob_denard_est_mort.html |date=4 January 2017 }}, ''[[Le Figaro]]'', 14 October 2007. {{in lang|fr}}</ref> After a brief inroad into civilian life, Denard returned to military service with the Katangese gendarmerie in 1961. Refusing to surrender when secessionist forces collapsed in January 1963, he disappeared into [[Angola]] with a nucleus of other die-hards and sought work training [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen|North Yemen royalist]]s before returning to the Congo at the request of then-Prime Minister [[Moise Tshombe]].<ref name=Fig/> Denard formed his own unit to fight the [[Simba Rebellion]], ''les affreux'', who were also instrumental in suppressing an attempted coup d'état in 1966. Dismissed by Congolese president [[Joseph Kasa Vubu]], the French mercenary joined the [[Kisangani Mutinies]] and was wounded in action. He later went on to serve as a military adviser to several African governments, including [[Gabon]] and [[Rhodesia]].<ref name=Hum>[https://www.humanite.fr/1999-05-04_International_Bob-Denard-chien-de-guerre Bob Denard, chien de guerre] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001044446/http://www.humanite.fr/1999-05-04_International_Bob-Denard-chien-de-guerre |date=1 October 2009 }}, ''[[L'Humanité]]'', 4 May 1999 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> Denard has since carried out five attempted coup d'etats in [[Benin]] and the [[Comoros Islands]], three of them successful.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/bob-denard-396988.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220512/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/bob-denard-396988.html |archive-date=12 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Bob Denard|website=[[Independent.co.uk]]|date=15 October 2007}}</ref>
* [[Neall Ellis]] was a South African aviator who achieved prominence for his extensive action in [[Sierra Leone]]'s long-running [[Sierra Leone Civil War|civil war]]. Ellis was raised in [[Bulawayo]], Rhodesia ([[Zimbabwe]]), but after an unsuccessful career in the [[Rhodesian Army]], emigrated to join the [[South African Air Force]].<ref name="Shadow">{{Cite web|url=http://www.shadowcompanythemovie.com/about_featured3.html|title=Shadow Company .:The Rules of War Have Changed:.|website=www.shadowcompanythemovie.com|access-date=10 May 2014|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170634/http://www.shadowcompanythemovie.com/about_featured3.html|url-status=live}}</ref> During the [[South African Border War]], he flew improvised [[Aérospatiale Alouette III]] and [[Atlas Oryx]] gunships over Angola and [[Mozambique]] in support of South African expeditionary forces conducting external raids. He retired a colonel upon the end of [[apartheid]], piloting [[Serbia and Montenegro|Yugoslav]] [[Mil Mi-8]]s as an operational freelancer. In 1998, Ellis returned to participate in the [[Angolan Civil War]] with private military firm [[Executive Outcomes]], which eventually dispatched him to Sierra Leone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cracked.com/article_19472_the-5-craziest-soldiers-fortune-to-ever-cash-paycheck.html|title=The 5 Craziest Soldiers of Fortune To Ever Cash a Paycheck|date=13 October 2011|website=Cracked.com|access-date=26 September 2020|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923193425/https://www.cracked.com/article_19472_the-5-craziest-soldiers-fortune-to-ever-cash-paycheck.html|url-status=live}}</ref> During the [[Siege of Freetown|Battle for Freetown]], he was instrumental in fighting off [[Revolutionary United Front]] insurgents from a [[Mil Mi-24 Hind]] and providing air support for British forces executing [[Operation Barras]]. He has founded his own paramilitary company, ''Jesa Air West Africa'',<ref name="Shadow"/> and continues to fly helicopters for [[Iraq]] and [[Somalia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.netwerk24.com/ZA/Rapport|title=Rapport|website=Netwerk24|access-date=26 September 2020|archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924215246/https://www.netwerk24.com/za/rapport|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Simon Mann]] was found guilty in [[Zimbabwe]] of "attempting to buy weapons" ''(BBC 27 August)'' allegedly for a coup in [[Equatorial Guinea]] in 2004 (see below).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.military.com/benefits|title=Military Benefits News and Resources|website=Military.com|access-date=26 September 2020|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222949/http://www.military.com/NewContent/0,13190,usn1_061103,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=====Congo Crisis=====
[[File:Dragonrouge2.jpg|thumb|White mercenaries fighting alongside Congolese troops in 1964]]

The [[Congo Crisis]] (1960–1965) was a period of turmoil in the First [[Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo]] that began with national independence from Belgium and ended with the seizing of power by [[Joseph Mobutu]]. During the crisis, mercenaries were employed by various factions, and also at times helped the United Nations and other peace keepers.

In 1960 and 1961, [[Mike Hoare]] worked as a mercenary commanding an English-speaking unit called "[[4 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo)|4 Commando]]" supporting a faction in [[Katanga Province|Katanga]], a province trying to break away from the newly independent [[Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)|Congo]] under the leadership of [[Moïse Tshombe]]. Hoare chronicled his exploits in his book the ''Road to Kalamata''.

In 1964, Tshombe (then Prime Minister of Congo) hired Major Hoare to lead a military unit called "[[5 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo)|5 Commando]]" made up of about 300 men, most of whom were from South Africa. The unit's mission was to fight a rebel group called [[Simba Rebellion|Simbas]], who already had captured almost two-thirds of the country.

In [[Operation Dragon Rouge]], "5 Commando" worked in close cooperation with Belgian [[paratrooper]]s, [[Cuba]]n exile pilots, and CIA hired mercenaries. The objective of Operation Dragon Rouge was to capture [[Kisangani|Stanleyville]] and save several hundred civilians (mostly Europeans and [[missionary|missionaries]]) who were hostages of the [[Simba rebellion|Simba]] rebels. The operation saved many lives;<ref>{{cite magazine| title = Changing Guard|magazine=Time|date=19 December 1965|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,834782,00.html?promoid=googlep|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930081709/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,834782,00.html?promoid=googlep|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 September 2007|access-date=6 June 2007}}</ref> however, the Operation damaged the reputation of [[Moïse Tshombe]] as it saw the return of white mercenaries to the Congo soon after independence and was a factor in Tshombe's loss of support from president of Congo [[Joseph Kasa-Vubu]] who dismissed him from his position

At the same time Bob Denard commanded the French-speaking "[[6 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo)|6 Commando]]", [[Jean Schramme|"Black Jack" Schramme]] commanded "10 Commando" and [[William "Rip" Robertson]] commanded a company of anti-Castro Cuban exiles.<ref>p. 85 Villafaña, Frank ''Cold war in the Congo: The Confrontation of Cuban military forces, 1960–1967'' Transaction Books</ref>

Later, in 1966 and 1967, some former Tshombe mercenaries and Katangese gendarmes staged the [[Mercenaries' Mutinies]].

=====Biafra=====
Mercenaries fought for [[Biafra]] in the Fourth Commando Brigade led by [[Rolf Steiner]] during the [[Nigerian Civil War]] (1967–1970).<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930065722/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900387-1,00.html The Mercenaries]}} in ''[[Time Magazine]]'' 25 October 1968</ref> Other mercenaries flew aircraft for the Biafrans. In October 1967, for example, a [[Royal Air Burundi]] [[Canadair North Star|DC-4M Argonaut]], flown by mercenary Heinrich Wartski, also known as Henry Wharton, crash-landed in [[Cameroon]] with military supplies destined for Biafra.<ref>Tom Cooper ''{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20140902121657/http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_351.shtml Civil War in Nigeria (Biafra), 1967–1970]}}'' 13 November 2003. Second paragraph.</ref>

It was hoped that employing mercenaries in Nigeria would have similar impact to the Congo, but the mercenaries proved largely ineffective.<ref name="Baxter, Philip p. 49">Baxter, Philip ''Biafra: The Nigerian Civil War 1967–1970'', London: Helion and Company, 2014 p. 49</ref> The British historian Philip Baxter wrote the principle difference was that the Congolese militias commanded by leaders with almost no military experience were no match for the mercenaries, and by contrast the Sandhurst-trained Nigerian Army officers were of an "altogether higher caliber" than Congolese militia leaders.<ref name="Baxter, Philip p. 49"/> Through much of the leadership of the Nigerian Army had been killed in two coups in 1966, there were still just enough Sandhust graduates left in 1967 to hold the Nigerian Army together and provide enough of a modicum of military professionalism to defeat the mercenaries.<ref name="Baxter, Philip p. 49"/> By October 1967, most of the mercenaries who had been expecting easy victories like those won in the Congo had already left Biafra, complaining that the Nigerians were a much tougher opponent who were defeating them in battle.<ref name="Baxter, Philip p. 49"/>

When asked about the impact of the white mercenaries, General [[Philip Effiong]], the chief of the Biafran general staff replied: "They had not helped. It would have made no difference if not a single one of them came to work for the secessionist forces. Rolf Steiner stayed the longest. He was more of a bad influence than anything else. We were happy to get rid of him."<ref name="Oyewole">{{cite journal |last1=Oyewole |first1=Fola |title=Scientists and Mercenaries |journal=Transition |year=1975 |volume=48 | pages=64–65}}</ref> One Biafran officer, Fola Oyewole, wrote about the sacking of Steiner in late 1968: "Steiner's departure from Biafra removed the shine from the white mercenaries, the myth of the white man's superiority in the art of soldering".<ref name="Oyewole"/> Oyewole wrote that the white mercenaries were hated by the ordinary people of Biafra due to their high-handed behavior; a tendency to retreat when it appeared possible the Nigerians were about to cut them off instead of holding their ground; and a fondness for looting, noting that the European mercenaries seemed more interested in stealing as much as possible instead of helping Biafra."<ref name="Oyewole"/>

In May 1969, Count [[Carl Gustaf von Rosen]] formed a squadron of five light aircraft known as the ''Babies of Biafra'', which attacked and destroyed Nigerian jet aircraft on the ground<ref name=GB-2004>Gary Brecher. [http://old.exile.ru/2004-October-15/war_nerd.html Biafra: Killer Cessnas and Crazy Swedes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080114042126/http://old.exile.ru/2004-October-15/war_nerd.html |date=14 January 2008 }} 15 October 2004.</ref> and delivered food [[aid]]. Count von Rosen was assisted by ex-[[RCAF]] fighter pilot [[Lynn Garrison]].

=====Angola=====
In 1975, [[John Banks (mercenary recruiter)|John Banks]], an Englishman, recruited mercenaries to fight for the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]] (FNLA) against the ''Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola'' ([[MPLA]]) in the [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] that broke out when Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975. In the United States, David Bufkin, a self-proclaimed mercenary hero started a recruiting campaign in ''Soldier of Fortune'' magazine calling for anti-Communist volunteers, especially Vietnam veterans, to fight in Angola as mercenaries, claiming to be funded to the tune of $80,000 by the Central Intelligence Agency.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book |last1=Burke |first1=Kyle |title=Revolutionaries for the Right: Anticommunist Internationalism and Paramilitary Warfare in the Cold War |date=2018 |publisher=University of North Carolina Pres |location=Chapel Hill |isbn=978-1469640747 |page=114}}</ref> Bufkin was in fact a former U.S. Army soldier "who has gone AWOL several times, has been tried for rape, and been in and out of jail several times", did not have $80,000, was not supported by the CIA, instead being a con-man who had stolen most of the money paid to him.<ref name="auto2"/> Bufkin managed to get a dozen or so American mercenaries to Angola, where several of them were killed in action with the rest being captured.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burke |first1=Kyle |title=Revolutionaries for the Right: Anticommunist Internationalism and Paramilitary Warfare in the Cold War |date=2018 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill |isbn=978-1469640747 |page=115}}</ref>

One of the leaders of the mercenaries was [[Costas Georgiou]] (the self-styled "Colonel Callan"), who was described by the British journalist Patrick Brogan as a psychopathic killer who personally executed fourteen of his fellow mercenaries for cowardice, and who was extremely brutal to black people.<ref name="Brogan, Patrick p. 6">Brogan, Patrick (1989), ''The Fighting Never Stopped'', New York: Vintage Books, p. 6</ref> Within 48 hours of his arrival in Angola, Georgiou had already led his men in disarming and massacring a group of FNLA fighters (his supposed allies), who he killed just for the "fun" of it all.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 76">Axelrod, Alan (2014), ''Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies'', Washington: CQ Press, p. 76</ref> At his trial, it was established that Georgiou had personally murdered at least 170 Angolans.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 76"/> Inept as a military leader as he was brutal, Georgiou notably failed as a commander. It was believed in 1975–76 that recruiting white mercenaries to fight in Angola would have a similar impact that the mercenaries had in the Congo in the 1960s, but in Angola the mercenaries failed completely as Brogan described their efforts as a "debacle".<ref name="Brogan, Patrick p. 6"/> If anything, the white mercenaries with their disdain for blacks, or in the case of Georgiou murderous hatred seemed to have depressed morale on the FNLA side.<ref>Axelrod, Alan (2014), ''Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies'', Washington: CQ Press, pp. 76–77</ref>

Many of the mercenaries in Angola were not former professional soldiers as they claimed to have been, but instead merely fantasists who had invented heroic war records for themselves. The fantasist mercenaries did not know how to use their weapons properly, and often injured themselves and others when they attempted to use weaponry that they did not fully understand, leading to some of them being executed by the psychopathic killer Georgiou who did not tolerate failure.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 77">Axelrod, Alan (2013), ''Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies'', Washington: CQ Press, p. 77</ref> On 27 January 1976, a group of 96 British mercenaries arrived in Angola and within a week about dozen had accidentally maimed themselves by trying to use weapons that they falsely claimed to be proficient with.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 77"/> The MLPA forces were better organized and led, and the dispatch of 35,000 Cuban Army troops in November 1975 decided the war for the MLPA.<ref>Brogan, Patrick (1989), ''The Fighting Never Stopped'', New York: Vintage Books, pp. 5–6</ref> Cuban accounts of the Angolan war speak of the efforts of the mercenaries in a tone of contempt as Cuban veterans contend that the mercenaries were poor soldiers who they had no trouble defeating.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 77"/>

When captured, John Derek Barker's role as a leader of mercenaries in Northern Angola led the judges to send him to face the firing squad following the [[Luanda Trial]]. Nine others were imprisoned. Three more were executed: American Daniel Gearhart was sentenced to death for advertising himself as a mercenary in an American newspaper; Andrew McKenzie and Georgiou, who had both served in the British Army, were sentenced to death for murder.<ref name="bbc_june28">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/28/newsid_2520000/2520575.stm 1976: Death sentence for mercenaries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510154328/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/28/newsid_2520000/2520575.stm |date=10 May 2018 }} [[BBC]] On this day 28 June</ref> Georgiou was shot by firing squad in 1976.<ref name="Brogan, Patrick p. 6"/> Costas' cousin [[Charlie Christodoulou]] was killed in an ambush.

[[Executive Outcomes]] employees, Captains Daniele Zanata and Raif St Clair (who was also involved in the [[1981 Seychelles coup attempt]]), fought on behalf of the MPLA against the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ([[UNITA]]) in the 1990s in violation of the [[Lusaka Protocol]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}}

=====Comoros=====
A major aim of French foreign policy was and still is to maintain the French sphere of influence in what is called ''[[Françafrique]]''. In 1975, [[Ali Soilih]] took power in the Comoros via a coup, and proved unwilling to accept the French viewpoint that his nation was part of ''Françafrique''. Unhappy with Soilih, the French secret service, the ''Service de Documentation Extérieure et de Contre-Espionnage'' in 1978 hired the French mercenary [[Bob Denard]] to invade the Comoros to overthrow Soilih.<ref name="Hebditch, David p. 136">Hebditch, David & Connor, Ken ''How to Stage a Military Coup: From Planning to Execution'', New York: Skyhorse, 2005 p. 136</ref> Making the Comoros a tempting target for Denard were its small size, consisting of only three islands in the Indian Ocean. Moreover, Soilih had abolished the Comorian Army, replacing the Army with a militia known as the Moissy, made up mostly of teenage boys with only the most rudimentary military training.<ref name="Hebditch, David p. 135">Hebditch, David & Connor, Ken ''How to Stage a Military Coup: From Planning to Execution'', New York: Skyhorse, 2005 p. 135</ref> The Moissy, which was modeled after the [[Red Guards]] in [[China]], existed mainly to terrorize Soilih's opponents and was commanded by a 15-year-old boy, appointed solely because of his blind devotion to Soilih.<ref name="Hebditch, David p. 135"/>

On the night of 13 May 1978, Denard and 42 other mercenaries landed on Grande Comore island, annihilated the poorly trained and badly commanded Moissy, none of whom had any military experience, and by the morning the Comoros was theirs.<ref name="Hebditch, David p. 136"/> President Soilih was high on marijuana and naked in his bed together with three nude teenage schoolgirls watching a pornographic film, when Denard kicked in the door to his room to inform him that he was no longer president.<ref name="Hebditch, David p. 136"/> Soilih was later taken out and shot with the official excuse being that he was "shot while trying to escape".<ref name="Hebditch, David p. 136"/> The new president of the Comoros, [[Ahmed Abdallah]], was a puppet leader and the real ruler of the Comoros was Colonel Denard, who brought the Comoros back into ''Françafrique''.<ref name="Hebditch, David p. 136"/>

As a ruler, Denard proved himself to be extremely greedy as he rapaciously plundered the Comorian economy to make himself into a very rich man.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 78">Axelrod, Alan ''Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies'', Washington: CQ Press, 2013 p. 78</ref> Denard served as the commander of the Comorian Presidential Guard and became the largest single landowner in the Comoros, developing the best land by the sea into luxury resorts catering to tourists who wanted to enjoy the tropics.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 78"/> Denard converted to Islam (the prevailing religion in the Comoros), and took advantage of the Islamic rules on polygamy to maintain for himself a harem of Comorian women. Officially, France was committed to the United Nations sanctions against the apartheid government of South Africa, which French and South African businesses circumvented via the Comoros, a form of sanctions-busting that was tolerated by Denard as long as he received his cut of the profits.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 78"/>

Ultimately, Denard's antics as the "great white conqueror" of the Comoros and his lavish lifestyle made him into embarrassment for the French government, as there were charges that France was engaged in neo-colonialism in the Comoros. At the same time there were alternatives to Denard in the form of black Comorian politicians who wanted Denard out, but were willing to keep the Comoros in ''Françafrique'', which would allow Paris to achieve its aims without the embarrassment of a white European exploiting a country inhabited by black Africans. When Abdallah tried to dismiss Denard as commander of the Presidential Guard, Denard had him assassinated on 26 November 1989.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 78"/> At that point, the French government, which had an alternative leadership in place, intervened by sending paratroopers to remove Denard and the other mercenaries from the Comoros while installing [[Said Mohamed Djohar]] as president.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 78"/>

On 28 September 1995, Denard again invaded the Comoros, but this time, Paris was against the invasion, and staged [[Operation Azalee]] – dispatching 600 [[List of French paratrooper units|paratroops]] to the Comoros to usher Denard and his mercenaries out.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 78"/> Denard was charged in France with the murder of President Abdallah, but was acquitted owing to a lack of evidence.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 78"/> In 2006, he was found guilty of conspiracy to overthrow the government of the Comoros in 1995, but by this point Denard was suffering from Alzheimer's disease and he did not serve a day in prison, instead dying in a Paris hospital on 13 October 2007.<ref>Axelrod, Alan ''Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies'', Washington: CQ Press, 2013 p. 79</ref>

=====Seychelles=====
{{Main|1981 Seychelles coup attempt}}

In 1981, "Mad Mike" Hoare was hired by the government of South Africa to lead an invasion of the Seychelles with the aim of deposing the left-wing President [[France-Albert René]], who had roundly criticized apartheid, and replacing him with a more apartheid-friendly leader.<ref>Axelrod, Alan ''Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies'', Washington: CQ Press, 1989 p. 178</ref> Disguised as a drinking club, Ye Ancient Order of Froth-Blowers, and as rugby players, Hoare led a force of 53 men into the airport at Port Larue on 25 November 1981.<ref>Axelrod, Alan ''Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies'', Washington: CQ Press, 1989 pp. 178–179</ref> Hoare's men failed to make it past the customs at the airport as an alert customs officer noticed one of the "rugby players" had an AK-47 assault rifle hidden in his luggage.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 179">Axelrod, Alan ''Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies'', Washington: CQ Press, 1989 p. 179</ref> What followed was a shoot-out at the airport between Hoare's men and Seychellois customs officers.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 179"/> Realizing the invasion was doomed, Hoare and his men escaped by hijacking an Air India jet which flew them back to South Africa.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 179"/> The fiasco of the Seychelles invasion marked the beginning of the decline of the traditional soldier of fortune, centered around a charismatic figure like Hoare or Denard, and a change over to the corporatized private military company, run by men who shunned the limelight.<ref name="Axelrod, Alan p. 179"/>

=====Eritrea and Ethiopia=====
Both sides hired mercenaries in the [[Eritrean–Ethiopian War]] from 1998 to 2000. Russian mercenaries were believed to be flying in the air forces of both sides.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sentinel Security Assessment – North Africa, Air force (Eritrea), Air force|publisher=Jane's Information Group|date=26 October 2011}}</ref><ref>''Africa News Online'': "In defiance, Eritrea was born; in defiance, it will live forever."  30 May 2000.</ref>

=====Sierra Leone=====
[[File:MacKenzieSlcu.jpg|thumb|[[Robert C. MacKenzie]]  (standing, wings on hat) with some of the Sierra Leone Commando Unit he was training with the Gurkha security guards]]

American [[Robert C. MacKenzie]] was killed in the Malal Hills in February 1995, while commanding Gurkha Security Guards (GSG) in [[Sierra Leone]]. GSG pulled out soon afterwards and was replaced by [[Executive Outcomes]]. Both were employed by the Sierra Leone government as military advisers and to train the government soldiers. It has been alleged that the firms provided soldiers who took an active part in the fighting against the [[Revolutionary United Front]] (RUF).<ref>{{cite book|title=Soldier of Fortune|publisher=Omega Group, Limited|page=91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CAUSAQAAIAAJ|language=en|year=2000|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=15 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215134430/https://books.google.com/books?id=CAUSAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2000, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's (ABC-TV) international affairs program ''Foreign Correspondent'' broadcast a special report "Sierra Leone: Soldiers of Fortune", focusing on former 32BN and Recce members who operated in Sierra Leone while serving for SANDF. Officers like De Jesus Antonio, TT D Abreu Capt Ndume and Da Costa were the forefront because of their combat and language skills and also the exploits of South African pilot [[Neall Ellis]] and his [[MI-24 Hind]] gunship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/content/2000/s229144.htm|title=Gunship for Hire|website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=28 September 2000|access-date=28 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226002825/http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/content/2000/s229144.htm|archive-date=26 December 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> The report also investigated the failures of the UN Peacekeeping Force, and the involvement of mercenaries and private military contractors in providing vital support to UN operations and British military Special Operations in Sierra Leone in 1999–2000.

=====Equatorial Guinea=====
{{Main|2004 Equatorial Guinea coup attempt}}

In August 2004 there was a plot, which later became known as the "Wonga Coup",<ref>Adam Roberts ''[http://www.wongacoup.com/ The Wonga Coup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717194733/http://www.wongacoup.com/ |date=17 July 2007 }}'', Profile Books Ltd, {{ISBN|1861979347}}.</ref> to overthrow the government of [[Equatorial Guinea]] in [[Malabo]]. eight South African [[apartheid]]-era soldiers, organised by Neves Matias (former Recce major and De Jesus Antonio former Captain in 2sai BN) with (the leader of whom is [[Nick du Toit]]) and five local men were held in Black Beach prison on the island. They were accused of being an advanced guard for a coup to place [[Severo Moto]] in power.<ref>''[http://news.independent.co.uk/world/africa/article33194.ece How oil brought the dogs of war back to Malabo] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015064536/http://news.independent.co.uk/world/africa/article33194.ece |date=15 October 2007 }}'' [[The Independent]] 2 September 2004</ref><ref>Allan Laing "'Scratcher' and the battle for Guinea" ''[[Glasgow Herald]]'' 26 August 2004</ref> Six Armenian aircrew, also convicted of involvement in the plot, were released in 2004 after receiving a presidential pardon. CNN reported on 25 August, that:<ref>[[CNN]] ''[http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/africa/08/25/equatorial.mercenaries.reut/ MALABO, Equatorial Guinea (Reuters) Nick du Toit said he was introduced to Thatcher in South Africa last year by Simon Mann]'', 25 August 2004: {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040914074551/http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/africa/08/25/equatorial.mercenaries.reut/ |date=14 September 2004 }}</ref>
{{blockquote|Defendant [[Nick du Toit]] said he was introduced to Thatcher in South Africa last year by Simon Mann, the leader of 70 men arrested in Zimbabwe in March suspected of being a group of mercenaries heading to Equatorial Guinea.}}

It was planned, allegedly, by Simon Mann, a former [[Special Air Service|SAS]] officer. On 27 August 2004 he was found guilty in Zimbabwe of purchasing arms, allegedly for use in the plot (he admitted trying to procure dangerous weapons, but said that they were to guard a diamond mine in DR Congo). It is alleged that there is a paper trail from him which implicates Sir Mark Thatcher, [[Jeffrey Archer|Lord Archer]] and [[Ely Calil]] (a Lebanese-British oil trader).<ref>[[BBC]] ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3605346.stm Mann guilty of purchasing weapons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040831023303/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3605346.stm |date=31 August 2004 }}'' 27 August 2004</ref>

The [[BBC]] reported in an article entitled "Q&A: Equatorial Guinea coup plot":<ref>[[BBC]] ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3597450.stm Q&A: Equatorial Guinea coup plot] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231024106/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3597450.stm |date=31 December 2007 }}'' 13 January 2005</ref>

{{Blockquote|The BBC's Newsnight television programme saw the financial records of Simon Mann's companies showing large payments to Nick du Toit and also some $2m coming in – though the source of this funding they say is largely untraceable.}}

The BBC reported on 10 September 2004 that in Zimbabwe:<ref>[[BBC]] ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3643250.stm Zimbabwe jails UK 'coup plotter'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050922193712/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3643250.stm |date=22 September 2005 }}'' 10 September 2004</ref>
{{blockquote|[Simon Mann], the British leader of a group of 67 alleged mercenaries accused of plotting a coup in Equatorial Guinea has been sentenced to seven years in jail... The other passengers got 12 months in jail for breaking immigration laws while the two pilots got 16 months...The court also ordered the seizure of Mann's $3m Boeing 727 and $180,000 found on board.}}

=====Libya=====
[[Muammar Gaddafi]] in Libya was alleged to have been using mercenary soldiers during the [[2011 Libyan civil war]], including [[Tuareg people|Tuaregs]] from various nations in Africa.<ref>{{cite news |author=Talk of the Nation |url=https://www.npr.org/2011/03/15/134568582/mercenaries-soldiers-who-fight-for-money |title=Mercenaries: Soldiers Who Fight For Money |newspaper=NPR.org |publisher=NPR |date=15 March 2011 |access-date=17 October 2011 |archive-date=23 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323003542/http://www.npr.org/2011/03/15/134568582/mercenaries-soldiers-who-fight-for-money |url-status=live }}</ref> Many of them had been part of his [[Islamic Legion]]<ref>Islamic Legion</ref> created in 1972. Reports say around 800 had been recruited from Niger, Mali, Algeria, Ghana and Burkina Faso.<ref>[https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110303/wl_africa_afp/malilibyapoliticsviolencenigeralgeriaburkina_20110303124751] {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> In addition, small numbers of Eastern European mercenaries have also turned up supporting the Gaddafi regime.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Martinovic |first=Jovo |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2090205,00.html?iid=pf-main-mostpop1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103132607/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2090205,00.html?iid=pf-main-mostpop1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 November 2011 |title=Libya: Ex-Gaddafi Mercenaries Describe Collapse of Regime |magazine=Time |date=24 August 2011 |access-date=17 October 2011}}</ref> Most sources have described these troops as professional Serbian veterans of the [[Yugoslav Wars|Yugoslav conflict]], including snipers, pilots and helicopter experts.<ref>{{cite web |author=Balkan Update |url=http://balkanupdate.blogspot.com/2011/02/serb-mercenaries-fighting-on-behalf-of.html |title=BALKAN UPDATE: Serbian Mercenaries Fighting on Behalf of Gaddafi |publisher=Balkanupdate.blogspot.com |date=23 February 2011 |access-date=17 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110225154007/http://balkanupdate.blogspot.com/2011/02/serb-mercenaries-fighting-on-behalf-of.html |archive-date=25 February 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.topix.com/forum/world/serbia/T6FKCFG06BN0IEND8 |title=Serbian mercenaries in Libya |publisher=Topix |date=4 June 2011 |access-date=17 October 2011 |archive-date=5 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505191046/http://www.topix.com/forum/world/serbia/T6FKCFG06BN0IEND8 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://thehypervigilantobserver.blogspot.com/2011/02/serbia-libya-are-serbian-mercenary.html |title=Hypervigilant Observer: Serbia / Libya : Are Serbian Mercenary Pilots Bombing Protestors in Tripoli? |publisher=Thehypervigilantobserver.blogspot.com |date=24 February 2011 |access-date=17 October 2011 |archive-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103172241/http://thehypervigilantobserver.blogspot.com/2011/02/serbia-libya-are-serbian-mercenary.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Certain observers, however, speculate that they may be from Poland or Belarus. The latter has denied the claims outright; the former is investigating them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.polishforums.com/news-politics-4/polish-mercenaries-libya-51162/ |title=Polish mercenaries in Libya? |publisher=Polishforums.com |access-date=17 October 2011 |archive-date=29 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929231039/http://www.polishforums.com/news-politics-4/polish-mercenaries-libya-51162/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the Serbian government has denied that any of their nationals are currently serving as mercenary soldiers in North Africa, five such men have been captured by anti-Gaddafi rebels in [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] and several others have also allegedly fought during the [[Second Battle of Benghazi]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Mark L Goldberg, USA |url=http://globalvoices.org/2011/02/24/serbia-reactions-to-the-story-of-serbian-mercenaries-in-libya/ |title=Serbia: Reactions to the Story of Serbian Mercenaries in Libya · Global Voices |publisher=Globalvoices.org |access-date=17 October 2011 |date=2011-02-24 |archive-date=12 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012191429/https://globalvoices.org/2011/02/24/serbia-reactions-to-the-story-of-serbian-mercenaries-in-libya/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://english.blic.rs/News/7953/Libyan-rebels-captured-five-Serbs-believed-to-be-mercenaries/] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829043950/http://english.blic.rs/News/7953/Libyan-rebels-captured-five-Serbs-believed-to-be-mercenaries/|date=29 August 2011}}</ref> a number of unidentified white South African mercenaries were hired to smuggle Gaddafi and his sons to exile in Niger. Their attempts were thwarted by NATO air activity shortly before the death of Libya's ousted strongman.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/africa/111026/south-african-mercenaries-libya-sirte-escort-gaddafi-convoy |title=South African mercenaries stuck in Libya: reports |publisher=Globalpost.com |date=26 October 2011 |access-date=10 November 2011 |archive-date=10 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110122244/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/africa/111026/south-african-mercenaries-libya-sirte-escort-gaddafi-convoy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.iafrica.com/sa/760509.html |title=iafrica.com &#124; SA mercenaries 'misled' |publisher=News.iafrica.com |access-date=10 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102163904/http://news.iafrica.com/sa/760509.html |archive-date=2 November 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/SA-soldiers-tried-to-help-Gaddafi-20111023 |title=Report: SA soldiers helped Gaddafi |publisher=News24 |date=23 October 2011 |access-date=10 November 2011 |archive-date=5 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105135054/http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/SA-soldiers-tried-to-help-Gaddafi-20111023 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Zara Nicholson |url=http://www.pretorianews.co.za/questions-over-19-s-africans-still-in-libya-1.1164493 |title=Questions over 19 S Africans still in Libya |work=Pretoria News &#124; IOL.co.za |date=25 October 2011 |access-date=10 November 2011 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119031656/http://www.pretorianews.co.za/questions-over-19-s-africans-still-in-libya-1.1164493 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/SA-mercenaries-left-to-own-devices-20111026 |title=SA 'mercenaries' left to own devices |publisher=News24 |date=26 October 2011 |access-date=10 November 2011 |archive-date=16 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116235120/http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/SA-mercenaries-left-to-own-devices-20111026 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Numerous reports have indicated that the team was still protecting [[Saif al-Islam Gaddafi]] shortly before he was apprehended.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/wonga-coup-mercenaries-fixed-gaddafis-doomed-last-flight-16071959.html |title='Wonga Coup' mercenaries fixed Gaddafi's doomed last flight |newspaper=The Belfast Telegraph |date=2011-11-02 |access-date=3 May 2014 |archive-date=7 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707080714/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/wonga-coup-mercenaries-fixed-gaddafis-doomed-last-flight-16071959.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|agency=Agence France-Presse|url=http://ca.news.yahoo.com/african-mercenaries-helping-kadhafi-son-104838293.html |title=S. African mercenaries 'helping Kadhafi son' |publisher=Yahoo! News |date=27 October 2011 |access-date=10 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111030030900/http://ca.news.yahoo.com/african-mercenaries-helping-kadhafi-son-104838293.html |archive-date=30 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=ANI |url=http://in.news.yahoo.com/saif-gaddafi-hires-team-south-african-mercenaries-smuggle-052212148.html |title=Saif Gaddafi 'hires team of South African mercenaries to smuggle him to safety' |publisher=Yahoo! News |date=30 October 2011 |access-date=10 November 2011 |archive-date=11 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111145521/http://in.news.yahoo.com/saif-gaddafi-hires-team-south-african-mercenaries-smuggle-052212148.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiavision.com/news/article/international/243165/gaddafis-son-hires-mercenaries-to-flee/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102145229/http://www.indiavision.com/news/article/international/243165/gaddafis-son-hires-mercenaries-to-flee |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 November 2011 |title=Gaddafi's son hires mercenaries to flee IndiaVision Latest Breaking News |publisher=Indiavision.com |access-date=10 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freep.com/article/20111029/NEWS07/110290348 |title=Mercenaries offer to help Moammar Gadhafi's fugitive son flee, prosecutor says |work=Detroit Free Press |date=29 October 2011 |access-date=10 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031162521/http://www.freep.com/article/20111029/NEWS07/110290348 |archive-date=31 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/saif-qaddafi-hiding-out-in-the-sahara-desert/ |title=Saif Qaddafi hiding out in the Sahara Desert? |publisher=CBS News |access-date=10 November 2011 |archive-date=5 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105224435/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162-57317674/saif-qaddafi-hiding-out-in-the-sahara-desert |url-status=live }}</ref>

Amnesty International has claimed that such allegations against Gaddafi and the Libyan state turned out to either be false or lacking any evidence.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/amnesty-questions-claim-that-gaddafi-ordered-rape-as-weapon-of-war-2302037.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220512/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/amnesty-questions-claim-that-gaddafi-ordered-rape-as-weapon-of-war-2302037.html |archive-date=12 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | work=The Independent | first=Patrick | last=Cockburn | title=Amnesty questions claim that Gaddafi ordered rape as weapon of war | date=24 June 2011}}</ref> [[Human Rights Watch]] has indicated that while many foreign migrants were erroneously accused of fighting with Gaddafi, there were also genuine mercenaries from several nations who participated in the conflict.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2012/country-chapters/libya|title=World Report 2012: Libya|date=22 January 2012|access-date=12 March 2016|archive-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313040639/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2012/country-chapters/libya|url-status=live}}</ref>

More recently in 2020 at least several hundred mercenaries from the Russian [[Wagner Group]] have been fighting on the side of the warlord, General [[Khalifa Haftar]], whom the government of Russia supports.<ref name="Spoiler">{{cite news |title=The spoiler Khalifa Haftar, the Libyan warlord, is not interested in compromise |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2020/01/23/khalifa-haftar-the-libyan-warlord-is-not-interested-in-compromise |access-date=24 May 2020 |newspaper=The Economist |date=23 January 2020 |archive-date=8 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608074301/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2020/01/23/khalifa-haftar-the-libyan-warlord-is-not-interested-in-compromise |url-status=live }}</ref> The Wagner Group mercenaries arrived in Libya in late 2019.<ref name="Mayhem">{{cite news |title=Magnet for Mayhem |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2019/12/12/foreign-powers-are-piling-into-libya |access-date=24 May 2020 |newspaper=The Economist |date=12 December 2019 |archive-date=27 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327003930/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2019/12/12/foreign-powers-are-piling-into-libya |url-status=live }}</ref> The Wagner Group have excelled as snipers, and one result of their arrival was a rapid increase in the number of sniper deaths on the opposing side that holds Tripoli.<ref name="Mayhem"/> In response, the government of Turkey hired 2,000 Syrian mercenaries to fight for the opposing faction that it is supporting in the Libyan civil war.<ref name="Spoiler"/>

Since 2019, Turkey deployed Syrian mercenaries in the Libya (See: [[Turkish military intervention in the Second Libyan Civil War]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/185821/|title=Turkish-backed mercenaries - First batch of Syrian fighters arrives in Azerbaijan|date=27 September 2020|website=Syrian Observatory for Human Rights|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=4 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204035624/https://www.syriahr.com/en/185821/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/178326/|title=Turkish-backed mercenaries {{!}} New batch of 300 Syrian mercenaries arrives Libya|date=6 August 2020|website=Syrian Observatory for Human Rights|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=13 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213093121/https://www.syriahr.com/en/178326/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2020/01/23/among-the-syrian-militiamen-of-turkeys-intervention-in-libya/|title=Among the Syrian Militiamen of Turkey's Intervention in Libya|first=Frederic|last=Wehrey|date=January 23, 2020|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=11 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711200547/https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2020/01/23/among-the-syrian-militiamen-of-turkeys-intervention-in-libya/|url-status=live}}</ref> In July 2020 [[Al Arabiyah]] reported that Turkey sent Syrian, Tunisian, Egyptian and Sudanese mercenaries into Libya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/north-africa/2020/07/13/Turkey-sends-mercenaries-militants-of-different-nationalities-to-Libya-Reports|title=Turkey sends mercenaries, militants of different nationalities to Libya: Reports|first=Tamara|last=Abueish|date=13 July 2020|via=Al Arabiya English|access-date=4 February 2021|archive-date=25 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625081954/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/north-africa/2020/07/13/Turkey-sends-mercenaries-militants-of-different-nationalities-to-Libya-Reports|url-status=live}}</ref>

A November 2020 report by human rights advocacy group [[Human Rights Watch]] claimed that approximately hundreds of [[Demographics of Sudan|Sudanese]] men were hired by an Emirati security firm Black Shield Security Services as security guards for shopping centres and hotels in the [[UAE]], but were subsequently tricked into fighting in the [[Libyan Civil War (2014–present)|Libyan Civil War]]. Reportedly 390 men were recruited from Khartoum, out of which 12 spoke to HRW and told that they were made to live alongside Libyan fighters aligned with UAE-backed General [[Khalifa Haftar]]. The recruits were hired to safeguard the oil facilities controlled by the Haftar forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/sudan-libya-civil-war-tricked-fighting-b1554374.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220512/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/sudan-libya-civil-war-tricked-fighting-b1554374.html |archive-date=12 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Turkey hires Tunisian, Sudanese mercenaries to fight in Libya|access-date=20 July 2020|website=Egypt Today}}</ref>