Editing Indira Gandhi (section)

== Domestic policy ==
{{Main|Domestic policy of the Indira Gandhi government}}

=== Nationalisation ===
Despite the provisions, control and regulations of the [[Reserve Bank of India]], most banks in India had continued to be owned and operated by private persons.<ref name="Gomez">{{cite book|first=Clifford|last=Gomez|title=Financial Markets Institutions And Financial Services
|publisher=PHI|year=2008|page=283|isbn=978-81-203-3537-0}}</ref> Businessmen who owned the banks were often accused of channeling the deposits into their own companies and ignoring [[priority sector lending]]. Furthermore, there was a great resentment against ''class'' banking in India, which had left the poor (the majority of the population) [[unbanked]].<ref name="Off the record">{{cite news |author=Akshat Kaushal |url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/offrecord/436974/ |title=Off the record |publisher=Business-standard.com |date=28 May 2011 |access-date=31 July 2013 |newspaper=[[Business Standard, India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119170848/http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/offrecord/436974/ |archive-date=19 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> After becoming prime minister, Gandhi expressed her intention of nationalising the banks to alleviate poverty in a paper titled, "Stray thoughts on Bank Nationalisation".<ref name="Muralidharan1">{{cite book|last=Muralidharan|title=Modern Banking: Theory And Practice|publisher=PHI|year=2009|page=364|isbn=978-81-203-3655-1}}</ref> The paper received overwhelming public support.<ref name="Muralidharan1" /> In 1969, Gandhi moved to nationalise fourteen major commercial banks. After this, public sector bank branch deposits increased by approximately 800 percent; advances took a huge jump by 11,000 percent.<ref name="Muralidharan2">{{cite book|last=Muralidharan|title=Modern Banking: Theory And Practice|publisher=PHI|year=2009|page=4|isbn=978-81-203-3655-1}}</ref> Nationalisation also resulted in significant growth in the geographic coverage of banks; the number of bank branches rose from 8,200 to over 62,000, most of which were opened in unbanked, rural areas. The nationalisation drive not only helped to increase household savings, but it also provided considerable investments in the informal sector, in small- and medium-sized enterprises, and in agriculture, and contributed significantly to regional development and to the expansion of India's industrial and agricultural base.<ref name="Singh">{{cite book|first=Kavaljit|last=Singh|title=Questioning Globalization
|publisher=[[Zed Books]]|year=2005|page=45|isbn=978-1-84277-279-9}}</ref> Jayaprakash Narayan, who became famous for leading the opposition to Gandhi in the 1970s, solidly praised her nationalisation of banks.<ref name="Off the record" />

Having been re-elected in 1971 on a nationalisation platform, Gandhi proceeded to nationalise the coal, steel, copper, refining, cotton textiles, and insurance industries.<ref name="Rosser" /> Most of this was done to protect employment and the interests of organised labour.<ref name="Rosser" /> The remaining private sector industries were placed under strict regulatory control.<ref name="Rosser" /> During the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971]], foreign-owned private oil companies had refused to supply fuel to the Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force. In response, Gandhi nationalised some oil companies in 1973.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=4 July 2015|title=Energy Geopolitics – An Overview|url=http://greatgameindia.com/energy-geopolitics-an-overview/|journal=GreatGameIndia Magazine|issue=July–Sept 2015 issue|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628175408/http://greatgameindia.com/energy-geopolitics-an-overview/|archive-date=28 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> However, major nationalisations occurred in 1974 and 1976, forming the oil majors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chaudhury|first=Saumitra|date=1977|title=Nationalisation of Oil Companies in India|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4365379|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=12|issue=10|pages=437–444|jstor=4365379|issn=0012-9976|access-date=28 July 2021|archive-date=28 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728041429/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4365379|url-status=live}}</ref> After nationalisation, the oil majors including the [[Indian Oil Corporation]] (IOC), the [[Hindustan Petroleum Corporation]] (HPCL), and the [[Bharat Petroleum Corporation]] (BPCL) had to keep a minimum stock level of oil to be supplied to the military when needed.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ved |last=Luthra|title=Poverty And Economic Reforms|location=New Delhi|publisher=Sarup & Sons|year=2005|page=293|isbn=978-81-7890-136-7}}</ref>

=== Administration ===
[[File:Territorial evolution of India 1961–1975.png|thumb|upright=2.2|Administrative divisions of India 1961–1975, Gandhi established six states, [[Haryana]] (1966), [[Himachal Pradesh]] (1971), [[Meghalaya]], [[Manipur]] and [[Tripura]] (all 1972), and finally [[Sikkim]] (1975), bringing the total of states to 22, she also established [[Arunachal Pradesh]] and [[Mizoram]] (1972) as Union Territories]]

In 1966, Gandhi [[Punjabi Suba movement|accepted the demands]] of the Akalis to reorganise Punjab on linguistic lines. The [[Hindi]]-speaking southern half of Punjab became a separate state, [[Haryana]], while the [[Pahari languages|Pahari]] speaking hilly areas in the [[Northeast India|northeast]] were joined to [[Himachal Pradesh]].{{sfn|Gupte|2012|p=302}} By this action she had hoped to ward off the growing political conflict between Hindu and Sikh groups in the region.{{sfn|Gupte|2012|p=302}} However, a contentious issue that was considered unresolved by the Akalis was the status of [[Chandigarh]], a prosperous city on the Punjab-Haryana border, which Gandhi declared a union territory to be shared as a capital by both the states.<ref name="Pletcher">{{cite book|first= Kenneth|last=Pletcher|title=The History of India|publisher=[[The Rosen Publishing Group]]|year=2010|page=315|isbn=978-1-61530-201-7}}</ref>

Victory over Pakistan in 1971 consolidated Indian power in [[Kashmir]]. Gandhi indicated that she would make no major concessions on Kashmir. The most prominent of the Kashmiri separatists, [[Sheikh Abdullah]], had to recognise India's control over Kashmir in light of the new order in [[South Asia]]. The situation was normalised in the years following the war after Abdullah [[1975 Indira–Sheikh accord|agreed to an accord]] with Gandhi, by giving up the demand for a plebiscite in return for a [[Article 370 of the Constitution of India|special autonomous status for Kashmir]]. In 1975, Gandhi declared the state of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] as a constituent unit of India. The Kashmir conflict remained largely peaceful if frozen under Gandhi's premiership.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jayanta|last=Kumar Ray|title=Aspects of India's International Relations, 1700 to 2000: South Asia and the World|publisher=[[Pearson plc]]|year=2007|page=493|isbn=978-81-317-0834-7}}</ref>

In 1972, Gandhi granted statehood to [[Meghalaya]], [[Manipur]], and [[Tripura]] while the [[North-East Frontier Agency]] was declared a union territory and renamed [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. The transition to statehood for the territories was successfully overseen by her administration<ref name="Chandra 2007b" /> and it was followed by the annexation of [[Sikkim]] in 1975.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=120–121}}

=== Social reform ===
The principle of equal pay for equal work for both men and women was enshrined in the Indian Constitution under the Gandhi administration.<ref name="Sarkar ">{{Cite book| publisher = [[Indiana University Press]]| page = 490|url={{Google books|GEPYbuzOwcQC|page=PA490|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-253-35269-9| last = Sarkar| first = Sumit|author2=Tanika Sarkar| title = Women and Social Reform in Modern India: A Reader| year = 2008}}</ref>

Gandhi questioned the continued existence of a privy purse for former rulers of princely states. She argued the case for abolition based on equal rights for all citizens and the need to reduce the government's revenue deficit. The nobility responded by rallying around the Jana Sangh and other right-wing parties that stood in opposition to Gandhi's attempts to abolish royal privileges.<ref name="Jaffrelot" /> The motion to abolish privy purses, and the official recognition of the titles, was originally brought before the Parliament in 1970. It was passed in the Lok Sabha but fell short of the two-thirds majority in the Rajya Sabha by a single vote.{{sfn|Jayakar|1997|p=214}} Gandhi responded by having a [[Presidential proclamation]] issued; de-recognising the princes; with this withdrawal of recognition, their claims to privy purses were also legally lost.{{sfn|Jayakar|1997|p=214}} However, the proclamation was struck down by the [[Supreme Court of India]].{{sfn|Jayakar|1997|p=214}} In 1971, she again motioned to abolish the privy purse and it was passed successfully as the 26th Amendment to the Constitution of India.<ref name="Jaffrelot" />

Gandhi claimed that only "clear vision, iron will and the strictest discipline" can remove poverty.<ref name="Jaffrelot" /> She justified the imposition of the state of emergency in 1975 in the name of the socialist mission of the Congress.<ref name="Jaffrelot" /> Armed with the power to rule by decree and without constitutional constraints, she embarked on a massive redistribution program.<ref name="Jaffrelot" /> The provisions included rapid enforcement of land ceilings, housing for landless labourers, the abolition of bonded labour and a moratorium on the debts of the poor.<ref name="Jaffrelot" /> [[North India]] was at the centre of the reforms. Millions of hectares of land were acquired and redistributed.<ref name="Jaffrelot" /> The government was also successful in procuring houses for landless labourers; According to [[Francine Frankel]], three-fourths of the targeted four million houses was achieved in 1975 alone.<ref name="Jaffrelot" /> Nevertheless, others have disputed the success of the program and criticised Gandhi for not doing enough to reform land ownership. The political economist, Jyotindra Das Gupta, cryptically questioned "whether or not the real supporters of land-holders were in jail or in power?"<ref name="Jaffrelot" /> Critics also accused Gandhi of choosing to "talk left and act right", referring to her concurrent pro-business decisions and endeavours.<ref name="Jaffrelot" /> [[J. Barkley Rosser Jr.]] wrote that "some have even seen the declaration of emergency rule in 1975 as a move to suppress dissent against Gandhi's policy shift to the right."<ref name="Rosser" /> Regardless of the controversy over the nature of the reforms, the long-term effects of the social changes gave rise to the prominence of middle-ranking farmers from intermediate and lower castes in North India.<ref name="Jaffrelot" /> The rise of the newly empowered social classes challenged the political establishment of the [[Hindi Belt]] in the years to come.<ref name="Jaffrelot" />

=== Language policy ===
Under the 1950 Constitution of India, [[Hindi]] was to be the official national language by 1965. That was unacceptable to many non-Hindi-speaking states which wanted the continued use of English in government. In 1967, Gandhi introduced a constitutional amendment that guaranteed the de facto use of both Hindi and English as official languages. It established the official government policy of bilingualism in India and satisfied the non-Hindi-speaking Indian states.<ref name="Steinberg" /> She thus put herself forward as a leader with a pan-Indian vision.<ref name="Chandra 2007">{{Cite book| publisher = [[Penguin Books India]]| page = 122|url={{Google books|dE9qEg-NgHMC|page=PA122|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-14-310409-4| last = Chandra| first = Bipan|author2=Aditya Mukherjee |author3=Mridula Mukherjee | title = India Since Independence| year = 2008}}</ref> Nevertheless, critics alleged that her stance was actually meant to weaken the position of rival Congress leaders from the northern states such as [[Uttar Pradesh]], where there had been strong, sometimes violent, pro-Hindi agitations.<ref name="Steinberg" /> Gandhi came out of the language conflicts with the strong support of the south Indian populace.<ref name="Chandra 2007" />

=== National security ===
In the late 1960s and 1970s, Gandhi had the Indian army crush [[Naxalite#Violence in West Bengal|militant Communist uprisings]] in the Indian state of [[West Bengal]].<ref name="Hamlet">{{cite web |url=http://www.sify.com/news/hamlet-and-the-naxals-news-defence-jgsnxMbjcdh.html |title=Hamlet and the Naxals |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=31 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605192016/http://www.sify.com/news/hamlet-and-the-naxals-news-defence-jgsnxMbjcdh.html |archive-date=5 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The communist insurgency in India was completely suppressed during the [[The Emergency (India)|state of emergency]].<ref name="Naxalites">{{Cite web|url=http://www.watershed.com.br/article/208/naxalites-who-are-they-and-what-are-their-demands.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602111341/http://www.watershed.com.br/article/208/naxalites-who-are-they-and-what-are-their-demands.aspx|url-status=dead|title=Naxalites: who are they and what are their demands?|archive-date=2 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="History">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/NM2/History-of-Naxalism/Article1-6545.aspx |title=History of Naxalism |publisher=Hindustantimes.com |date=15 December 2005 |access-date=31 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722091758/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/NM2/History-of-Naxalism/Article1-6545.aspx |archive-date=22 July 2013 }}</ref><ref name="break">{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/indira-gandhi-used-army-to-break-naxals-retired-general-30840 |title=Indira Gandhi used Army to break Naxals: Retired General |publisher=[[NDTV.com]] |date=10 June 2010 |access-date=31 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511100731/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/indira-gandhi-used-army-to-break-naxals-retired-general-30840 |archive-date=11 May 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Gandhi considered the north-eastern region important, because of its strategic situation.<ref>{{cite book|first=Indira|last=Gandhi|title=Selected Thoughts of Indira Gandhi: A Book of Quotes|publisher=Mittal Publications|year=1985|page=224}}</ref> In 1966, the [[March 1966 Mizo National Front uprising|Mizo uprising]] took place against the government of India and overran almost the whole of the [[Mizoram|Mizoram region]]. She ordered the [[Indian Army]] to launch massive retaliatory strikes in response. The rebellion was suppressed with the [[Indian Air Force]] carrying out airstrikes in [[Aizawl]]; it remains the only instance of India carrying out airstrikes in its own territory.<ref name="Chandra 2007b">{{Cite book| publisher = [[Penguin Books India]]| pages = 146–147|url={{Google books|dE9qEg-NgHMC|page=PA147|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-14-310409-4| last = Chandra| first = Bipan|author2=Aditya Mukherjee |author3=Mridula Mukherjee | title = India Since Independence| year = 2008}}</ref><ref name="rediff_iaf">{{cite web | url = http://news.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/aug/03/slide-show-1-special-dont-bomb-the-naxals.htm#6 | title = Don't bomb the Naxals!: IAF last strafed Indian territory in 1966 | work = [[Rediff.com]] | date = 5 August 2010 | access-date = 27 December 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121117085439/http://news.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/aug/03/slide-show-1-special-dont-bomb-the-naxals.htm#6 | archive-date = 17 November 2012 | url-status = live }}</ref> The defeat of Pakistan in 1971 and the secession of East Pakistan as pro-India Bangladesh led to the collapse of the Mizo separatist movement. In 1972, after the less extremist Mizo leaders came to the negotiating table, Gandhi upgraded Mizoram to the status of a union territory. A small-scale insurgency by some militants continued into the late 1970s, but it was successfully dealt with by the government.<ref name="Chandra 2007b" /> The Mizo conflict was [[Mizoram Peace Accord|definitively resolved]] during the administration of Gandhi's son Rajiv. Today, Mizoram is considered one of the most peaceful states in the north-east.<ref name="Stepan">{{Cite book| publisher = [[JHU Press]]| page = 105|url={{Google books|kGUuOdeCiXQC|page=PA105|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-8018-9723-8| last = Stepan| first = Alfred|author2=Juan J. Linz |author3=Yogendra Yadav | title = Crafting State-Nations: India and Other Multinational Democracies| year = 2011}}</ref>

Responding to the insurgency in [[Nagaland]], Indira Gandhi "unleashed a powerful military offensive" in the 1970s.<ref name="Das">{{Cite book
| publisher = [[SAGE Publishing]]| page = 207|url={{Google books|4bY27nAdkocC|page=PA207|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-7619-3391-5| last = Das| first = Samir| title = Peace Processes and Peace Accords| year = 2005}}</ref> Finally, a massive crackdown on the insurgents took place during the state of emergency ordered by Gandhi. The insurgents soon agreed to surrender and signed the [[Shillong Accord of 1975|Shillong Accord]] in 1975.<ref name="R1">{{cite web |url= http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/nagaland/documents/papers/nagaland_accord_the_shillong_nov_11_1975.htm |title= Nagaland Accord – The Shillong Agreement of November 11, 1975 |quote= representatives of the underground organisations met the Governor of Nagaland, Shri L.P. Singh representing the Government of India, at Shillong on 10th and 11th November, 1975. |publisher= satp.org/ |access-date= 27 December 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130603044643/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/nagaland/documents/papers/nagaland_accord_the_shillong_nov_11_1975.htm |archive-date= 3 June 2013 |url-status= live }}</ref> While the agreement was considered a victory for the Indian government and ended large-scale conflicts,<ref name="R3">{{cite web|url=http://nagaland.nic.in/profile/history/peace.htm |title=Dawn of Peace in Nagaland – SHILLONG ACCORD |quote=the historic "Shillong" signed at Shillong on November 11, 1975, by the Governor of Nagaland Mr. L.P Singh representing the Government of India and the underground leadership represented by Mr. Assa and Mr. Kevi Yalley |publisher=nagaland.nic.in |access-date=27 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314113027/http://nagaland.nic.in/profile/history/peace.htm |archive-date=14 March 2012 }}</ref> there have since been spurts of violence by [[National Socialist Council of Nagaland|rebel holdouts]] and [[Ethnic conflict in Nagaland|ethnic conflict amongst the tribes]].<ref name="R3" />

=== India's nuclear programme ===
{{Main|India and weapons of mass destruction|Smiling Buddha}}
Gandhi contributed to and carried out further, the vision of [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], the former premier of India, to develop its nuclear program.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /><ref name=prolifimpact>{{cite book|last=Perkovich|first=George|title=India's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation|year=2002|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn= 978-0-520-23210-5}}</ref> Gandhi authorised the development of nuclear weapons in 1967, in response to ''[[Test No. 6]]'' by the People's Republic of China. Gandhi saw the test as Chinese nuclear intimidation and promoted Nehru's views to establish India's stability and security interests independent from those of the nuclear superpowers.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/nehrus-refusal-of-kennedys-offer-of-nuclear-detonation-kept-india-out-of-the-nsg/articleshow/52732667.cms?from=mdr |title=Nehru's refusal of Kennedy's offer of nuclear detonation kept India out of the NSG |last=Chaudhury |first=Dipanjan Roy |date=12 July 2018 |newspaper=The Economic Times |url-status=live |access-date=22 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401192438/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/nehrus-refusal-of-kennedys-offer-of-nuclear-detonation-kept-india-out-of-the-nsg/articleshow/52732667.cms?from=mdr |archive-date=1 April 2019 }}</ref>

The programme became fully mature in 1974, when [[Raja Ramanna]] reported to Gandhi that India had the ability to test its first nuclear weapon. Gandhi gave verbal authorisation for the [[nuclear testing|test]], and preparations were made in the Indian Army's [[Pokhran Test Range]].<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org">{{cite web|last= Sublette|first= Carey|title= Origins of Indian nuclear program|url= http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaOrigin.html|work= Nuclear Weapon Archive|access-date= 13 November 2011|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190809125408/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaOrigin.html|archive-date= 9 August 2019|url-status= live}}</ref> In 1974, India successfully conducted an underground nuclear test, unofficially code named "''Smiling Buddha''", near the desert village of [[Pokhran]] in Rajasthan.<ref name="Smiling Buddha">{{cite web| url= http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaSmiling.html| work= India's Nuclear Weapons Program| title= Smiling Buddha, 1974| publisher= Nuclear Weapon Archive| access-date= 26 February 2020| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190829003453/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaSmiling.html| archive-date= 29 August 2019| url-status= live}}</ref> As the world was quiet about this test, a vehement protest came from Pakistan as its prime minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, described the test as "Indian hegemony" to intimidate Pakistan.<ref>{{Citation | publisher = [[Associated Press of Pakistan]] (APP) and Pakistan Television (PTV) | title = Prime minister Secretariat Press Release | quote = India's so-called Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) is tested and designed to intimidate and establish "Indian hegemony in the subcontinent", most particularly Pakistan... | first = Zulfikar Ali | last = Bhutto | date = 18 May 1974 | url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110918040826/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html | archive-date = 18 September 2011 }}</ref> In response to this, [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto|Bhutto]] launched a massive campaign to make Pakistan a nuclear power. Bhutto asked the nation to unite and slogans such as "hum ghaas aur pattay kha lay gay magar nuclear power ban k rhe gay" ("We will eat grass or leaves or even go hungry, but we will get nuclear power") were employed. Gandhi directed a letter to Bhutto, and later to the world, claiming the test was for [[Peaceful nuclear explosion|peaceful purposes]] and part of India's commitment to develop its programme for industrial and scientific use.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/WikiLeaks-Indira-had-offered-to-share-N-tech-with-Pakistan-in-1974/articleshow/19467959.cms |title=WikiLeaks: Indira had offered to share N-tech with Pakistan |newspaper=The Times of India |date=10 April 2013 |url-status=live |access-date=13 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406115840/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/WikiLeaks-Indira-had-offered-to-share-N-tech-with-Pakistan-in-1974/articleshow/19467959.cms |archive-date=6 April 2019 }}</ref>

In spite of intense international criticism and steady decline in foreign investment and trade, the nuclear test was popular domestically. The test caused an immediate revival of Gandhi's popularity, which had flagged considerably from its heights after the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]]. The overall popularity and image of the Congress Party was enhanced and the Congress Party was well received in the [[Indian Parliament]].