Editing History of Poland (section)

====Repression and organic work====

[[File:Prus 002.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bolesław Prus]] (1847–1912), a leading novelist, journalist and [[History of philosophy in Poland#Positivism|philosopher]] of Poland's [[Positivism in Poland|Positivism movement]]]]

The failure of the January Uprising in Poland caused a major psychological trauma and became a historic watershed; indeed, it sparked the development of modern [[Polish nationalism]]. The Poles, subjected within the territories under the Russian and Prussian administrations to still stricter controls and increased persecution, sought to preserve their identity in non-violent ways. After the uprising, Congress Poland was downgraded in official usage from the "Kingdom of Poland" to the "[[Vistula Land]]" and was more fully integrated into Russia proper, but not entirely obliterated. The [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[German language|German]] languages were imposed in all public communication, and the Catholic Church was not spared from severe repression. Public education was increasingly subjected to [[Russification]] and [[Germanisation]] measures. Illiteracy was reduced, most effectively in the Prussian partition, but education in the [[Polish language]] was preserved mostly through unofficial efforts. The Prussian government pursued German colonization, including the purchase of Polish-owned land. On the other hand, the region of [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] (western Ukraine and southern Poland) experienced a gradual relaxation of authoritarian policies and even a Polish cultural revival.  Economically and socially backward, it was under the milder rule of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Monarchy]] and from 1867 was increasingly allowed limited autonomy.<ref name="playground II xxi"/> ''Stańczycy'', a conservative Polish pro-Austrian faction led by great land owners, dominated the Galician government. The [[Polish Academy of Learning]] (an [[academy of sciences]]) was founded in Kraków in 1872.<ref name="playground II xxi"/>

Social activities termed "[[organic work]]" consisted of self-help organizations that promoted economic advancement and work on improving the competitiveness of Polish-owned businesses, industrial, agricultural or other. New commercial methods of generating higher productivity were discussed and implemented through [[trade association]]s and special interest groups, while Polish banking and cooperative financial institutions made the necessary business loans available. The other major area of effort in organic work was educational and intellectual development of the common people. Many libraries and reading rooms were established in small towns and villages, and numerous printed periodicals manifested the growing interest in popular education. Scientific and educational societies were active in a number of cities. Such activities were most pronounced in the Prussian Partition.<ref name="Lukowski 182–187"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Buszko|1986|pp=84–85}}.</ref>

[[Positivism in Poland]] replaced Romanticism as the leading intellectual, social and literary trend.<ref name="Lukowski 182–187">{{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2006|pp=182–187}}.</ref><ref name="Lukowski 192–194">{{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2006|pp=192–194}}.</ref> It reflected the ideals and values of the emerging urban [[bourgeoisie]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wereszycki|1990|pp=66–67}}.</ref> Around 1890, the urban classes gradually abandoned the positivist ideas and came under the influence of modern pan-European [[nationalism]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wereszycki|1990|pp=297–298}}.</ref>