Editing History of Bangladesh (section)

== People's Republic of Bangladesh ==
{{Main|History of Bangladesh (1971–present)}}

===Constitution, early democracy and socialism===
====Provisional Government====
The [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh]] was the country's first government. The Provisional Government was formed in [[Mujibnagar]] on 17 April 1971. It issued the proclamation of independence and drafted an interim constitution, declaring "Equality, Human Dignity and Social Justice" as its fundamental principles. Its prime minister was [[Tajuddin Ahmad]] and military [[chief of staff]] was [[M A G Osmani]]. Other important cabinet members included [[Syed Nazrul Islam]] and [[Muhammad Mansur Ali]]. It included the newly formed [[Bangladesh Civil Service]] with defecting members of the Civil Service of Pakistan. It also had a prominent [[diplomatic corps]], led by [[Abu Sayeed Chowdhury]], [[Humayun Rashid Choudhury]] and [[Rehman Sobhan]] among others. The [[Bangladesh Forces]] included eleven sector commanders, among whom prominent figures included [[Ziaur Rahman]], [[Khaled Mosharraf]] and [[K M Shafiullah]].<ref name="thedailystar">
{{cite news |title=Genesis of Bangladesh's Constitution |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/genesis-bangladeshs-constitution-1209718 |newspaper=The Daily Star |type=Op-ed |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226094413/http://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/genesis-bangladeshs-constitution-1209718 |archive-date=26 December 2016 |url-status=live}}
</ref><ref name="banglapedia">{{cite web|url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Mujibnagar_Government|website=Banglapedia |title=Mujibnagar Government |access-date=6 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208122432/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Mujibnagar_Government|archive-date=8 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Neighboring India provided diplomatic, economic and military support for the Provisional Government. The government's capital in exile was [[Calcutta]]. The Indian military intervened in the final two weeks of the war in December 1971, ensuring the surrender of Pakistan.

====Sheikh Mujib administration====
The left-wing [[Awami League]], which had won the 1970 election in Pakistan, formed the first post-independence government in Bangladesh. Awami League leader [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] became the 2nd [[Prime Minister of Bangladesh]] on 12 January 1972 and is widely regarded as the nation's independence hero and [[founding father]]. [[Nation-building]] under his regime was based on secular Bengali nationalist principles. The original [[Constitution of Bangladesh]], drafted by [[Kamal Hossain]], laid down the structure of a liberal democratic [[parliamentary republic]] with socialist influences in 1972.

On the international stage, Rahman and his Indian counterpart [[Indira Gandhi]] signed the 25-year [[Indo-Bangladeshi Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Peace]]. Bangladesh joined the [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. Rahman was invited to Washington DC and Moscow for talks with American and [[Soviet]] leaders. In the [[Delhi Agreement]] of 1974, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan pledged to work for regional stability and peace. The agreement paved the way for the return of interned Bengali officials and their families stranded in Pakistan, as well as the establishing of diplomatic relations between Dhaka and Islamabad. Japan became a major aid provider to the new country. Although Israel was one of early countries to recognise Bangladesh,<ref>
{{cite book |last=Husain |first=Syed Anwar |chapter=Bangladesh and Islamic Countries, 1972-1983 |year=1990 |editor-last1=Tepper |editor-first1=Elliot L. |editor-last2=Hayes |editor-first2=Glen A. |title=Bengal and Bangladesh: Politics and Culture on the Golden Delta |publisher=Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University |page=103 |quote="In April 1972, Israel also extended recognition to Bangladesh."}}
</ref> the government in Dhaka strongly supported [[Egypt]] during the [[Arab-Israeli War of 1973]]. In return, Egypt gifted Bangladesh's military with 44 tanks.<ref name="globalsecurity">
{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/bangladesh/army-modernization.htm |title=Bangladesh Army – Modernization |last=Pike |first=John |publisher=globalsecurity.org |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228181126/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/bangladesh/army-modernization.htm |archive-date=28 December 2016 |url-status=live}}
</ref> The [[Soviet Union]] supplied several squadrons of [[MiG-21]] planes.<ref name="globalsecurity2">
{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/bangladesh/air-force-modernization.htm |title=Bangladesh – Air Force Modernization |last=Pike |first=John |publisher=globalsecurity.org |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226230031/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/bangladesh/air-force-modernization.htm |archive-date=26 December 2016 |url-status=live}}
</ref>

Domestically, Rahman's regime became increasingly authoritarian.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |year=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |page=52 |isbn=0-340-39420-X}}</ref> There was an insurgency by the radical socialist [[Jashod]], as well as agitation by pro-business and conservative forces, who felt the Awami League was unfairly taking exclusive credit for the liberation struggle.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} Rahman imposed a three-month state of emergency in 1974 to clean up mismanagement and corruption.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |year=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |pages=44–45 |isbn=0-340-39420-X}}</ref> He formed the para-military [[Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini]], which was accused of [[human rights abuses]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |year=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |page=37 |isbn=0-340-39420-X}}</ref> The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini was also distrusted by many in the Bangladesh Army.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |year=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |page=46 |isbn=0-340-39420-X}}</ref>

Economically, Rahman embarked on a huge [[nationalisation]] programme that failed to deliver the benefits intended. Soviet and Indian aid also failed to materialise in the desired quantity. The [[Bangladesh famine of 1974]] was a major economic blow and humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Lewis2011">
{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=David |author-link=David Lewis (academic) |date=2011 |title=Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lH40gT7xvYC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=78–81 |isbn=978-1-139-50257-3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106064248/https://books.google.com/books?id=5lH40gT7xvYC |archive-date=6 January 2017 |url-status=live}}
</ref>

In January 1975, Sheikh Mujib assumed the presidency with extraordinary powers, dissolved the parliamentary system, and established a [[one party state]]. Various political parties were merged into a sole legal national party, the [[Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League]], popularly known by its acronym BAKSAL.<ref name="Lewis2011" /> Most Bangladeshi newspapers were banned.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} The failure of Sheikh Mujib's economic policies alienated the population. By 1975 journalist [[Anthony Mascarenhas]] described him as "the most hated man in Bangladesh".<ref name="Lewis2011" /> On 15 August 1975, a group of junior army rebels [[Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman|assassinated Sheikh Mujib]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |year=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |pages=65–66 |isbn=0-340-39420-X}}</ref>

===Military coups and presidential regimes===
{{See also|Military coups in Bangladesh}}

====First martial law and Zia administration====
[[File:Statiefoto op paleis Soestdijk. V.l.n.r. Beatrix, H.M., van Vollenhoven, Ziaur R, Bestanddeelnr 930-2280.jpg|thumb|President [[Ziaur Rahman]] with [[Queen Juliana]] and [[Princess Beatrix]] of the [[Netherlands]] in 1979]]
The coup leaders installed Vice-President [[Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad]] as Sheikh Mujib's immediate successor. Ahmad promulgated martial law. He reshuffled the leadership of the Bangladesh Armed Forces and jailed some prominent confidantes of Sheikh Mujib, including Bangladesh's first Prime Minister Tajuddin Ahmad. The [[Jail Killing Day|jailed leaders were killed]] on 3 November 1975 to prevent them from siding with a counter-coup that began that day.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |year=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |pages=79, 82–86 |isbn=0-340-39420-X}}</ref>

The counter-coup, led by Brigadier General [[Khaled Mosharraf]], overthrew Ahmad from the presidency. On 6 November 1975, the chief justice, [[Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem]], was installed as president. The next day Mosharraf was killed during a mutiny led by Abu Taher. The army chief, Lieutenant General [[Ziaur Rahman]], emerged as the country's most powerful figure.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |year=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |pages=98, 102, 108–109, 111 |isbn=0-340-39420-X}}</ref>

The dispute over the [[sharing the water of the Ganges]], due to India's construction of the [[Farakka Barrage]], led Bangladesh to seek the intervention of the United Nations in 1976. The dispute was addressed through a bilateral agreement in 1977.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Ian |editor-last=Preston |title=A Political Chronology of Central, South and East Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f5wcH0abSQcC&pg=PA18 |year=2005 |orig-year=First published 2001 |publisher=Europa Publications |page=18 |isbn=978-1-135-35680-4}}</ref>

Lt Gen Ziaur Rahman (popularly known as Zia) assumed the presidency from Justice Sayem on 21 April 1977. Zia formed the [[Bangladesh Nationalist Party]] (BNP). Parliamentary elections were held in 1979, in which the BNP gained a landslide majority and the Awami League became the principal opposition party.

President Zia restored [[free market]]s, redefined socialism as "economic and social justice" in the constitution and crafted a foreign policy which emphasised solidarity with Muslim majority countries and [[SAARC|regional co-operation in South Asia]]. Bangladesh achieved rapid economic and industrial growth under Zia's presidency. The government built the country's first [[export processing zone]]s. It operated a popular food-for-work programme, reversed the collectivisation of farms and promoted private sector development.

Zia faced twenty mutinies and attempted coups against his government.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |year=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |pages=121 |isbn=0-340-39420-X}}</ref> The final coup attempt resulted in his [[Assassination of Ziaur Rahman|assassination in 1981]]: Zia was killed by troops loyal to Major General [[Abul Manzoor]] on 30 May 1981. The mutiny was later suppressed by army chief Lieutenant General [[Hussain Muhammad Ershad]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mascarenhas |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Mascarenhas |year=1986 |title=Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |pages=159, 168, 171–172 |isbn=0-340-39420-X}}</ref>

====Sattar administration====
Zia was succeeded by Vice-President [[Abdus Sattar (president)|Abdus Sattar]]. President Sattar received a popular mandate during the [[1981 Bangladeshi presidential election|1981 presidential election]]. The [[1982 Bangladesh coup d'état]] deposed President Sattar and his civilian government.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Ian |editor-last=Preston |title=A Political Chronology of Central, South and East Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f5wcH0abSQcC&pg=PA19 |year=2005 |orig-year=First published 2001 |publisher=Europa Publications |pages=19–20 |isbn=978-1-135-35680-4}}</ref>

====Second martial law and Ershad administration====
[[File:Hussain Muhammad Ershad.jpg|thumb|upright|President [[Hussain Muhammad Ershad]]]]
[[File:Noor Hossain at 10 November 1987 protest for democracy in Dhaka (01).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Noor Hossain]], a pro-democracy demonstrator, "স্বৈরাচার নীপাত যাক//" The words, in bright white paint written on the bare chest on 10 November 1987 protest for democracy in Dhaka, photographed by Dinu Alam just before he was shot dead by President Ershad's security forces]]
Sattar was replaced by the chief justice [[A. F. M. Ahsanuddin Chowdhury]]. Lieutenant General [[Hussain Muhammad Ershad]] proclaimed martial law and became the [[Chief Martial Law Administrator#Bangladesh|Chief Martial Law Administrator]]. He appointed himself as the President of the Council of Ministers and the naval and air force chiefs as deputy martial law administrators. Ershad geared Bangladesh's foreign policy more towards the anti-Soviet bloc.

In 1983, Ershad assumed the presidency. Political repression was rife under Ershad's martial law regime. However, the government implemented a series of administrative reforms, particularly in terms of [[devolution]]. The eighteen districts of the country were divided into [[Districts of Bangladesh|sixty-four districts]]. The [[upazila]] system was also created.

Among his major actions were to privatise the largely state-owned economy (up to 70% of industry was in public ownership) and encourage private investment in heavy industries along with light manufacturing, raw materials, and newspapers. Foreign companies were invited to invest in Bangladeshi industry as well, and stiff protectionist measures were put in place to safeguard manufacturing. All political parties and trade unions were banned, with the death penalty to be administered for corruption and political agitation. Ershad's takeover was generally viewed as a positive development{{fact|date=August 2024}}, as Bangladesh was in a state of serious economic difficulty. The country was facing significant food shortages. The government also faced a severe budget deficit to the tune of 4&nbsp;billion takas, and the [[IMF]] declared that it would not provide any more loans until Bangladesh paid down some of its existing debts. During most of 1984, Ershad sought the opposition parties' participation in local elections under martial law. The opposition's refusal to participate, however, forced Ershad to abandon these plans. Ershad sought public support for his regime in a national referendum on his leadership in [[1985 Bangladeshi military rule referendum|March 1985]]. He won overwhelmingly, although turnout was small. Two months later, Ershad held elections for local council chairmen. Pro-government candidates won a majority of the posts, setting in motion the President's ambitious decentralisation programme.
Political life was further liberalised in early 1986, and additional political rights, including the right to hold large public rallies, were restored. At the same time, the [[Jatiya Party (Ershad)|Jatiya (National) Party]], designed as Ershad's political vehicle for the transition from martial law, was established.<ref name=bn>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3452.htm |title=Background Note: Bangladesh |last=[[Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs]] |date=March 2008 |website=U.S. Department of State |access-date=11 June 2008 |archive-date=27 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027173216/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3452.htm |url-status=live }} ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> Despite a boycott by the BNP, led by President Zia's widow, Begum [[Khaleda Zia]], parliamentary elections were held on schedule in [[1986 Bangladeshi general election|May 1986]]. The Jatiya Party won a modest majority of the 300 elected seats in the National Assembly. The participation of the Awami League—led by the late President Mujib's daughter, Sheikh Hasina Wajed—lent the elections some credibility, despite widespread charges of voting irregularities.<ref name=bn/><ref name="Ershadsbid">
{{cite news |last=Liton |first=Shakhawat |date=28 August 2010 |title=Ershad's desperate bids go in vain |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-152587 |newspaper=The Daily Star |access-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619213834/https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-152587 |archive-date=19 June 2018 |url-status=live}}
</ref>

Ershad resigned as Chief of Army Staff and retired from military service in preparation for the [[1986 Bangladeshi presidential election|1986 presidential elections]], scheduled for October. Protesting that martial law was still in effect, both the BNP and the AL refused to put up opposing candidates. Ershad easily outdistanced the remaining candidates, taking 84% of the vote. Although Ershad's government claimed a turnout of more than 50%, opposition leaders, and much of the foreign press, estimated a far lower percentage and alleged voting irregularities.<ref name="NYTershad">
[https://www.nytimes.com/1986/10/17/world/bangladesh-chief-claims-vote-victory.html Bangladesh Chief Claims Vote Victory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227232225/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/10/17/world/bangladesh-chief-claims-vote-victory.html |date=27 December 2018 }} The New York Times, 17 October 1986
</ref>

In November 1986, his government mustered the necessary two-thirds majority in the National Assembly to pass the seventh constitutional amendment bill, protecting Ershad and his regime from prosecution for actions taken under the years of military rule.<ref name="Ershadsbid" /> Martial law was subsequently lifted on 11 November<ref name=bn/><ref>
{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/11/11/martial-law-ends-in-bangladesh/2be0301b-5fc2-4e63-93d8-ff368b939a3b/|title=Martial Law Ends in Bangladesh|date=11 November 1986|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=29 December 2018|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229220705/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/11/11/martial-law-ends-in-bangladesh/2be0301b-5fc2-4e63-93d8-ff368b939a3b/|archive-date=29 December 2018|url-status=live}}
</ref> and the opposition parties took their elected seats in the National Assembly.

In July 1987, however, after the government hastily pushed through a controversial legislative bill to include military representation on local administrative councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. Passage of the bill helped spark an opposition movement that quickly gathered momentum, uniting Bangladesh's opposition parties for the first time. The government began to arrest scores of opposition activists under the country's Special Powers Act of 1974. Despite these arrests, opposition parties continued to organise protest marches and nationwide strikes.<ref name="nvad">
{{cite web|url=https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/bangladeshis-bring-down-ershad-regime-1987-1990|title=Bangladeshis bring down Ershad regime, 1987-1990|date=17 November 2012|website=Global Nonviolent Action Database|language=en|access-date=30 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107205104/https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/bangladeshis-bring-down-ershad-regime-1987-1990|archive-date=7 January 2019|url-status=live}}
</ref> In order to prevent a 72-hour strike planned for 29 November, Ershad declared a state of emergency on 27 November.<ref>
[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-11-28-mn-5961-story.html Protest Banned, Curfew Imposed in Bangladesh]  L.A. Times, 28 November 1987
</ref> Parliament was dissolved on 6 December,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.gov.bd/index.php/en/about-parliament/tenure-of-parliament|title=Tenure of All Parliaments|date=30 December 2012|website=Parliament of Bangladesh|language=en|access-date=30 December 2018|archive-date=12 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812074443/http://www.parliament.gov.bd/index.php/en/about-parliament/tenure-of-parliament|url-status=live}}</ref> and fresh elections scheduled for March 1988.<ref name=bn/>

All major opposition parties refused government overtures to participate in these polls, maintaining that the government was incapable of holding free and fair elections. Despite the opposition boycott, the [[1988 Bangladeshi general election|parliamentary elections]] proceeded. The ruling [[Jatiya Party (Ershad)|Jatiya Party]] won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament, while still regarded by the opposition as an illegitimate body, held its sessions as scheduled, and passed numerous bills, including, in June 1988, the controversial eighth [[Amendments to the Constitution of Bangladesh|amendment to the Constitution]], which made Islam the state religion,<ref name="statereligion">
{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/bangladesh-islam-state-idUSKCN0W91XJ|title=After 28 years, Bangladesh revives case to drop Islam as state...|date=7 March 2016|work=Reuters|access-date=29 December 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622005411/https://www.reuters.com/article/bangladesh-islam-state-idUSKCN0W91XJ|archive-date=22 June 2018|url-status=live}}
</ref> in contrast to the original secular nature of the [[Constitution of Bangladesh|Constitution]].

By 1989, the local council elections were generally considered by international observers to have been less violent and more free and fair than previous elections. However, opposition to Ershad's rule began to regain momentum, escalating by the end of 1990 in frequent general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order.<ref name=bn/>

====Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict====
{{Main|Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict}}

The [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] is the south-eastern mountainous frontier of Bangladesh with [[Myanmar]] and [[Northeast India]]. The area enjoyed autonomy under British Bengal. Its autonomous status was revoked by [[Pakistan]], which built the controversial [[Kaptai Dam]] that displaced the area's indigenous people. When Bangladesh became independent, the government of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman adopted a Bengali nationalist constitution, which denied recognition of the country's ethnic minorities. [[Manabendra Narayan Larma]], a member of parliament form the hill tracts, called for constitutional recognition of the indigenous people of the area.<ref>{{cite book |last=Van Schendel |first=Willem |date=2009 | title=A History of Bangladesh | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=344| isbn=9780521861748}}</ref> He gave a notable speech at the [[Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh]] demanding the use of "[[Bangladeshis|Bangladeshi]]" as the country's nationality definition, instead of [[Bengalis|Bengali]]. During the 1970s and '80s, there were attempts by the government to settle with the Bengali people. These attempts were resisted by the hill tribes, who, with the latent support of neighbouring India, formed a guerrilla force called [[Shanti Bahini]]. As a result of the tribal resistance movement, successive governments turned the Hill Tracts into a militarised zone.<ref>{{cite book |last=Van Schendel |first=Willem |date=2009 | title=A History of Bangladesh | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=345| isbn=9780521861748}}</ref>

Following years of unrest, the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord]] was signed in 1997 between the government of Bangladesh and the tribal leaders which granted a limited level of autonomy to the elected council of the three hill districts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rashiduzzaman |first=M. |date=1998 |title=Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord: Institutional Features and Strategic Concerns |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645754 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=38 |issue=7 |pages=653–670 |doi=10.2307/2645754 |jstor=2645754 |issn=0004-4687 |access-date=17 February 2023 |archive-date=5 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105001300/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645754 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Return of parliamentary republic and Battle of the Begums===
====First caretaker government (1990–1991)====
{{Main|1990 Mass Uprising in Bangladesh}}
Ershad resigned under the pressure from the military and international community, as the [[pro-democracy]] movement spearheaded by Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina engulfed the entire country and drew the participation of the middle and upper classes.

The chief justice, [[Shahabuddin Ahmed]], was sworn in as [[acting president]] and formed the first [[caretaker government of Bangladesh]]. Ahmed placed Ershad under arrest and organised free and fair elections in 1991.

====Khaleda administration (1991–1996)====
The centre-right BNP won the [[1991 Bangladeshi general election]] with 140 seats, but was short of an overall parliamentary majority. However, they formed a government with support from the Islamic party [[Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh|Jamaat-e-Islami]], with [[Khaleda Zia]], widow of Ziaur Rahman, obtaining the post of prime minister. Only four parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1991 Parliament: The BNP, led by Prime Minister [[Begum Khaleda Zia]]; the AL, led by Sheikh Hasina; the Jamaat-I-Islami (JI), led by Ghulam Azam; and the Jatiya Party (JP), led by acting chairman Mizanur Rahman Choudhury while its founder, former President Ershad, served out a prison sentence on corruption charges. Khaleda Zia became the first female prime minister in Bangladeshi history.

In [[1991 Bangladeshi constitutional referendum|September 1991]] a constitutional referendum was held, which sought the transfer of executive powers from the President, which had been held by the Office since 1975, to the Prime Minister – making the President largely a ceremonial role. The vote was overwhelmingly in favour of the constitutional amendment and Bangladesh was restored to a Parliamentary democracy, as per its founding constitution. In October 1991, members of Parliament elected a new head of state, President [[Abdur Rahman Biswas]]. Finance Minister [[Saifur Rahman (Bangladeshi politician)|Saifur Rahman]] launched a series of liberal economic reforms, which set a precedent in South Asia and was seen as a model in India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.<ref name="dhakatribune">
{{cite news |last=Hossain |first=Kazi Liakat |date=6 September 2016 |title=Remembering the budget wizard |url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/opinion/op-ed/2016/09/06/remembering-budget-wizard/ |newspaper=[[Dhaka Tribune]] |type=Op-ed |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510083610/http://www.dhakatribune.com/opinion/op-ed/2016/09/06/remembering-budget-wizard/ |archive-date=10 May 2017 |url-status=live}}
</ref>

In March 1994, controversy over a parliamentary by-election, which the opposition claimed the government had rigged, led to an indefinite boycott of Parliament by the entire opposition. The opposition also began a programme of repeated general strikes to press its demand that Khaleda Zia's government resign and a caretaker government supervise a general election. Efforts to mediate the dispute, under the auspices of the Commonwealth Secretariat, failed. After another attempt at a negotiated settlement failed narrowly in late December 1994, the opposition resigned en masse from Parliament. The opposition then continued a campaign of marches, demonstrations, and strikes in an effort to force the government to resign.<ref name="postershad">{{cite journal |last1=Islam |first1=Syed Serajul |date=2001 |title=Elections and politics in post-Ershad era in Bangladesh |url=https://www.sav.sk/journals/uploads/060412385_Islam.pdf |journal=Asian and African Studies |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=160–173 |access-date=30 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230181206/https://www.sav.sk/journals/uploads/060412385_Islam.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> All major opposition parties, including Sheikh Hasina's Awami League, pledged to boycott national elections scheduled for [[February 1996 Bangladeshi general election|15 February 1996]].<ref name=bn />

In February, Khaleda Zia was re-elected by a landslide in voting boycotted and denounced as unfair by the three main opposition parties. This administration was short-lived however, only lasting 12 days<ref name="parliamentarytenure">{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.gov.bd/index.php/en/about-parliament/tenure-of-parliament|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812074443/http://www.parliament.gov.bd/index.php/en/about-parliament/tenure-of-parliament|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 August 2018|title=Tenure of All Parliaments|date=12 August 2018|access-date=27 December 2018}}</ref> and in March 1996, following escalating political turmoil, the sitting Parliament enacted a constitutional amendment to allow a neutral [[Caretaker government of Bangladesh|caretaker government]] to assume power and conduct new parliamentary elections in [[June 1996 Bangladeshi general election|June 1996]].

====Second caretaker government (1996)====
The chief justice [[Muhammad Habibur Rahman]] became the 1st [[Chief Advisor of Bangladesh]] under the country's constitutional caretaker government system. During this period, President [[Abdur Rahman Biswas]] sacked army chief Lieutenant General [[Abu Saleh Mohammad Nasim]] for alleged political activities, causing the general to attempt a coup in response. The sacked army chief ordered troops in Bogra, Mymensingh and Jessore to march towards Dhaka. However, the military commander of Savar sided with the president and deployed tanks in the capital and its surrounding highways, and also suspended ferry services, as part of operations to deter the coup forces. Lt Gen Nasim was later arrested in Dhaka Cantonment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} Political Developments December 1996 - April 1998 |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a84f4.html |access-date=2023-02-17 |website=Refworld |language=en |archive-date=15 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915172713/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a84f4.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Further|1996 Bangladesh coup d'état attempt}}

The Chief Advisor successfully held free and fair elections on 12 June 1996. The Awami League emerged as the single largest party, with 146 seats in parliament, followed by the BNP with 116 seats and Jatiya Party with 32 seats.

====Hasina administration (1996–2001)====
[[Sheikh Hasina|Sheikh Hasina's]] Awami League won 146 of 300 seats in the [[June 1996 Bangladeshi general election|June 1996 elections]], just short of a majority. However, with the support of Jatiya party she formed what she called a "Government of National Consensus" in June 1996.<ref name=bn/> International and domestic election observers found the June 1996 election free and fair. The BNP soon charged that police and Awami League activists were engaged in large-scale harassment and jailing of opposition activists. At the end of 1996, the BNP staged a parliamentary walkout over this and other grievances but returned in January 1997 under a four-point agreement with the ruling party. The BNP asserted that this agreement was never implemented and later staged another walkout in August 1997. The BNP returned to Parliament under another agreement in March 1998.<ref name=bn/>

The first Hasina administration is credited for landmark initiatives in environmental and inter-ethnic peacemaking. It was responsible for signing the Ganges Water Sharing Treaty with India and the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord]] with ethnic insurgents, for which Hasina won the UNESCO Peace Prize. Hasina was also one of the founding leaders of the [[Developing 8 Countries]]. In 1998, Hasina hosted a rare and unprecedented trilateral economic summit in Dhaka with Prime Ministers [[Nawaz Sharif]] of Pakistan and [[I. K. Gujral]] of India. Her summits with US President [[Bill Clinton]] in Dhaka and Washington DC focused on American energy investments for Bangladesh's [[Natural gas in Bangladesh|natural gas reserves]] and the extradition of her father's killers. However, Hasina was not keen to allow the export of Bangladeshi natural gas, despite demands from multinational firms.<ref name="ConcaDabelko2002">{{cite book |last1=Conca |first1=Ken |last2=Dabelko |first2=Geoffrey D. |author2-link=Geoffrey Dabelko |year=2002 |title=Environmental Peacemaking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vxl87MVug4sC&pg=PA69 |publisher=Woodrow Wilson Center Press |page=69 |isbn=978-0-8018-7193-1}}</ref><ref name="Roy2000">{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Rajkumari Chandra Kalindi |year=2000 |title=Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQShJjSoF-MC&pg=PA164 |publisher=IWGIA |page=164 |isbn=978-87-90730-29-1}}</ref><ref name="Initiative2007">{{cite book|author=Bangladesh Development Initiative|title=Political culture in Bangladesh: perspectives and analysis : selections from the journal of Bangladesh studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=520MAQAAMAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Bangladesh Development Initiative|isbn=978-984-05-1782-4|page=323}}</ref><ref name="latimes">
{{cite news |last=Chen |first=Edwin |date=21 March 2000 |title=Clinton Touts Ties With Bangladesh |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-mar-21-mn-11124-story.html |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117040246/http://articles.latimes.com/2000/mar/21/news/mn-11124 |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live}}
</ref><ref name="BhargavaKhatri1999">{{cite book |last1=Bhargava |first1=Kant Kishore |last2=Khatri |first2=Sridhar K. |author3=Coalition for Actions for South Asian Cooperation (Kathmandu, Nepal) |year=1999 |title=Working paper for Conference on South Asia 2010: Opportunities and Challenges, Kathmandu, December 1–3, 1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcvsAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Coalition for Action on South Asian Cooperation |page=16}}</ref>

In June 1999, the BNP and other opposition parties again began to abstain from attending Parliament. Opposition parties staged an increasing number of nationwide general strikes, rising from six days of general strikes in 1997 to 27 days in 1999. A four-party opposition alliance formed at the beginning of 1999 announced that it would boycott parliamentary by-elections and local government elections unless the government took steps demanded by the opposition to ensure electoral fairness. The government did not take these steps, and the opposition subsequently boycotted all elections.<ref name=bn/>

In July 2001, the Awami League government stepped down to allow a caretaker government to preside over parliamentary elections. Political violence that had increased during the Awami League government's tenure continued to increase through the summer in the run up to the election. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed during a visit of former President Jimmy Carter to respect the results of the election, join Parliament win or lose, forswear the use of hartals (violently enforced strikes) as political tools, and if successful in forming a government allow for a more meaningful role for the opposition in Parliament.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/bangladesh/74099.htm |title=Background Note: Bangladesh|date=6 September 2017 |website=U.S. Department of State |access-date=8 March 2025}}</ref>

====Third caretaker government (2001)====
The caretaker government, led by Chief Advisor [[Latifur Rahman]], was successful in containing the violence, which allowed a parliamentary general election to be successfully held on [[2001 Bangladeshi general election|1 October 2001]]. The election saw a landslide victory of the BNP-led coalition, which included the far-right [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] and [[Islami Oikya Jote]]. The BNP won 193 seats and the Jamaat won 17 seats.<ref name=bn/>

====Khaleda administration (2001–2006)====
[[File:LulaZia.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Khaleda Zia]], Bangladesh's first woman prime minister, with President Lula of Brazil, during her second term]]
Following the [[September 11 attacks]], the government of Prime Minister Khaleda Zia allowed the United States to use Bangladeshi airports and airspace for combat operations in Afghanistan. Bangladesh was also quick to respond to relief efforts in Afghanistan after the overthrow of the Taliban, with BRAC becoming the largest development agency in the war-torn country. The United States praised Bangladesh as an "elegant, compelling and greatly needed voice of moderation" in the [[Muslim world]].<ref name="bbc">
{{cite news |title=Powell praises Bangladesh |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3003010.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526204526/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3003010.stm |archive-date=26 May 2017 |url-status=live}}
</ref> Khaleda Zia also developed a strategic partnership with China and signed a Defense Cooperation Agreement with Beijing.<ref name="southasiaanalysis">
{{cite web |url=http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper582 |title=Bangladesh-China Defence Co-Operation Agreement's Strategic Implications: An Analysis |website=South Asia Analysis Group |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212053504/http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper582 |archive-date=12 December 2012 |url-status=usurped}}
</ref>

Despite her August 2001 pledge and all election monitoring groups declaring the election free and fair, Sheikh Hasina condemned the last election, rejected the results, and boycotted Parliament. In 2002, however, she led her party legislators back to Parliament, but the Awami League again walked out in June 2003 to protest derogatory remarks about Hasina by a State Minister and the allegedly partisan role of the Parliamentary Speaker. In June 2004, the AL returned to Parliament without having any of their demands met. They then attended Parliament irregularly before announcing a boycott of the entire June 2005 budget session.

Khaleda Zia's administration was marked by improved economic growth, corruption allegations and growing rifts between the country's secular and conservative forces. A series of high-profile assassinations targeted the Awami League-led opposition. Former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina narrowly escaped an [[2004 Dhaka grenade attack|assassination attempt]] in 2004. The Jamaatul Mujahadeen Bangladesh launched several terrorist attacks in 2005. The League accused the BNP and Jamaat of having complicity in the rise of militancy. Relations with neighbouring India deteriorated over allegations that Bangladeshi territory was allowed to be used by Northeast Indian insurgents.{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}}

==== Fourth caretaker regime (2006–2008) ====
[[File:Hamid Karzai, Pervez Musharraf, Fakhruddin Ahmed - WEF Annual Meeting Davos 2008.jpg|thumb|[[Chief Advisor of Bangladesh|Chief Advisor]] [[Fakhruddin Ahmed]] with presidents [[Hamid Karzai]] of Afghanistan and [[Pervez Musharraf]] of Pakistan, at the [[World Economic Forum]]]]
A major political crisis erupted after the end of the BNP's tenure, as the Awami League-led coalition demanded a neutral candidate for Chief Advisor. Weeks of strikes, protests and blockades paralysed the country. President [[Iajuddin Ahmed]] assumed the responsibilities of Chief Advisor but failed to allay the fears of the opposition of an impending rigged election. The Bangladeshi press accused the president of acting under the influence of the BNP. Violent protests continued even as the military was deployed in aid of civil administration.

On 11 January 2007, a state of emergency was declared by President Ahmed, who resigned from the office of chief advisor under widely reported pressure from the military, particularly the army chief General [[Moeen U Ahmed]].<ref name="economist">{{cite magazine |date=18 January 2007 |title=The coup that dare not speak its name |url=http://www.economist.com/node/8560006 |magazine=The Economist |access-date=6 January 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729102240/http://www.economist.com/node/8560006 |archive-date=29 July 2017}}</ref> The former governor of the central bank, [[Fakhruddin Ahmed]], was appointed as the Chief Advisor and the cabinet was reshuffled with many technocrats. The military-backed caretaker government started an anti-corruption drive, which saw the arrest of over 160 politicians, businessmen and bureaucrats, including former prime ministers Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina, as well as Khaleda's two sons. Student protests in Dhaka University demanded the restoration of democracy in August 2007, but were suppressed by a curfew. Khaleda and Hasina were released in 2008.

{{Further|2006-2008_Bangladeshi_political_crisis}}

The state of emergency lasted for two years. The [[2008 Bangladeshi general election|December 2008 general election]] saw a landslide victory for the Awami League-led coalition, which also included the Jatiya Party.

====Hasina administration (2009–2024)====
[[File:Protesters at Shahbag 2.JPG|thumb|upright|[[2013 Shahbag protests]] demanding the death penalty for the war criminals of the 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]]]
[[File:Russia-Bangladeshi talks Moscow 2013-01-15 11.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Sheikh Hasina]] and [[Vladimir Putin]], 2013]]
Within two months of assuming office, Sheikh Hasina's second government faced the [[BDR Mutiny]], which provoked tensions with sections of the military. Hasina successfully tackled the threat from mutineers and enraged elements in the military.<ref>{{cite book |last=Van Schendel |first=Willem |date=2009 | title=A History of Bangladesh | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=356| isbn=9780521861748}}</ref> She formed the [[International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)|international crimes tribunal]] to prosecute surviving Bengali Islamist collaborators of the 1971 genocide. The tribunal has criticism over its fairness and impartiality.

An anti-terror crackdown dramatically improved relations with neighbouring India. Bangladesh and India have increasingly focused on regional connectivity and trade.

In 2010, the [[Supreme Court of Bangladesh]] reaffirmed [[secularism]] as a fundamental principle in the constitution. The war crimes tribunal mobilised public opinion in favour of secularism, which was manifested in the March [[2013 Shahbag protests]]. In response, a huge Islamist mobilisation also took place led by the [[Hefazat-e-Islam Bangladesh|Hefazat-e-Islam]] group in May 2013.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-06-24 |title=Bangladesh: restoring secular Constitution |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/bangladesh-restoring-secular-constitution/article2132333.ece |access-date=2023-02-17 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=17 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217043535/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/bangladesh-restoring-secular-constitution/article2132333.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

The intense bickering between the League and BNP, often dubbed the Battle of the Begums, has continued. The Hasina government abolished the provision of caretaker government in the constitution through the controversial Fifteenth Amendment.<ref name="Van Schendel 2009 358">{{cite book |last=Van Schendel |first=Willem |date=2009 | title=A History of Bangladesh | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=358| isbn=9780521861748}}</ref> The move was seen by the BNP as an attempt to corrupt the election process in favour of the League.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maîtrot |first=Mathilde |last2=Jackman |first2=David |date=2023-07-03 |title=Discipline, Development, and Duress: The Art of Winning an Election in Bangladesh |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2023.2229363 |journal=Critical Asian Studies |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=424–439 |doi=10.1080/14672715.2023.2229363 |issn=1467-2715}}</ref>

In 2013, the hard-line, right-wing, Islamic party, Jamaat-e-Islami was banned from registering and therefore contesting in elections by the [[High Court of Bangladesh|High Court]], citing their charter violates the constitution.<ref>
{{cite news |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2013/08/2013819424198348.html|title=Bangladesh court declares Jamaat illegal {{!}} News |publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=28 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106012128/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2013/08/2013819424198348.html|archive-date=6 January 2019|url-status=live}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/politics/news/ec-scraps-jamaats-registration-1653415|title=EC scraps Jamaat's registration|date=30 October 2018|work=The Daily Star|language=en|access-date=28 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228174842/https://www.thedailystar.net/politics/news/ec-scraps-jamaats-registration-1653415|archive-date=28 December 2018|url-status=live}}
</ref> Street violence between the League, BNP and the Jamaat intensified in the run up to the general election. In 2014, the [[2014 Bangladeshi general election|general elections]] were boycotted by the BNP. The elections were criticized by the United States, United Kingdom, [[European Union]] and the United Nations.<ref name=credible>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/01/violent-bangladesh-poll-not-credible-201417153340105129.html|title=Violent Bangladesh poll 'not credible'|first=Syed Tashfin|last=Chowdhury|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=10 July 2020|archive-date=12 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200512173317/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/01/violent-bangladesh-poll-not-credible-201417153340105129.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Sheikh Hasina was sworn in for a third tenure as prime minister.

In 2015 and 2016, Bangladesh saw increasing assassinations targeting minorities and [[Attacks on secularists in Bangladesh|secularists]]. The country's worst terrorist attack saw the death of 20 people after an upmarket restaurant was sieged by gunmen in July 2016.<ref name="telegraph1">
{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/07/01/gunmen-attack-restaurant-in-diplomatic-quarter-of-bangladeshi-ca/|title=20 hostages killed in 'Isil' attack on Dhaka restaurant popular with foreigners|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=2 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701220123/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/07/01/gunmen-attack-restaurant-in-diplomatic-quarter-of-bangladeshi-ca/|archive-date=1 July 2016|url-status=live}}
</ref> The [[Islamic State of Iraq and Levant]] has claimed responsibility for many of the attacks, although the Hasina government insists local terror outfits are more likely to be responsible.<ref name="Van Schendel 2009 358"/> Since this attack, the Government took stricter measures against extremists as the security forces led a numerous raids on suspected militant hide-outs. The measures led to reduction in extremist attacks and fatalities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sing|first=S.B.|title=Bangladesh: Exemplary Record – Analysis|url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/21012020-bangladesh-exemplary-record-analysis/|publisher=EurasiaReview News&Analysis|date=21 January 2020|access-date=21 January 2020|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809114830/https://www.eurasiareview.com/21012020-bangladesh-exemplary-record-analysis/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Rohingya displaced Muslims 010.jpg|thumb|Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh in October 2017]]
In 2017, the country faced fresh challenge from incoming [[Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh|Rohingya refugees]]. Starting in early August 2017, the Myanmar security forces began "clearance operations" against the Rohingya in northern Rakhine state – killing thousands of Rohingya, brutalizing thousands more, and driving hundreds of thousands out of the country into neighboring Bangladesh. In the first four weeks of the conflict, over 400,000 Rohingya refugees (approximately 40% of the remaining Rohingya in Myanmar) fled the country (chiefly to Bangladesh) creating a major [[humanitarian crisis]]. The governments of Myanmar and Bangladesh signed a [[memorandum of understanding]] on 23 November 2017 regarding the repatriation of Rohingya refugees to Rakhine State.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.news.com.au/world/breaking-news/myanmar-bangladesh-sign-rohingya-deal/news-story/b0989c37a2348826393b42c7521522c5|title=Myanmar, Bangladesh 'sign Rohingya deal'|work=News.com.au|access-date=24 November 2017|archive-date=24 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124161409/http://www.news.com.au/world/breaking-news/myanmar-bangladesh-sign-rohingya-deal/news-story/b0989c37a2348826393b42c7521522c5|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, till the end of the decade over 740,000 refugees remained in Bangladesh creating pressure on the country's economy and infrastructure.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47412704 |title=Rohingya crisis: Bangladesh will no longer take in Myanmar refugees - BBC News |work=BBC News |date=March 2019 |access-date=19 January 2020 |archive-date=10 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910173536/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47412704 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[2018 Bangladeshi general election|2018 General elections]] brought another landslide victory for the [[Awami League]] led by [[Sheikh Hasina]]. While the opposition was already weak due to key leaders being in either jail or exile, the elections were further marred by [[2018 Bangladesh election violence|violence]] and claims of vote rigging.<ref name=BBC>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-46716605 Bangladesh election: Opposition demands new vote] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231045352/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-46716605 |date=31 December 2018 }} BBC News, 30 December 2018</ref> However, this gave the Awami League Government stability and opportunity to complete key infrastructure projects for the country including the [[Padma Bridge]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladesh Unveils Padma River Bridge |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/bangladesh-unveils-padma-river-bridge/6633218.html |work=VOA |date=25 June 2022 |language=en |access-date=2 September 2022 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901180314/https://www.voanews.com/a/bangladesh-unveils-padma-river-bridge/6633218.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Dhaka Metro Rail]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=M |first1=Patrick |title=Bangladesh: Dhaka Metro Rail Project Updates |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/biggest-projects/bangladesh-dhaka-metro-rail-project-timeline-and-all-you-need-to-know/ |website=Construction Review Online |language=en-us |date=6 November 2021 |access-date=2 September 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902104014/https://constructionreviewonline.com/biggest-projects/bangladesh-dhaka-metro-rail-project-timeline-and-all-you-need-to-know/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Anti-government protests broke out in Bangladesh on 10 December 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |title=What's behind antigovernment protests in Bangladesh? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/program/inside-story/2022/12/11/whats-behind-anti-government-protests-in-bangladesh |access-date=2022-12-11 |publisher=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=2023-04-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425194122/https://www.aljazeera.com/program/inside-story/2022/12/11/whats-behind-anti-government-protests-in-bangladesh |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2022, tens of thousands marched in Dhaka demanding the resignation of Sheikh Hasina.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Sud |first1=Vedika |last2=Xiong |first2=Yong |date=2022-12-11 |title=Tens of thousands protest in Bangladesh to demand resignation of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/12/11/asia/bangladesh-protests-prime-minister-sheikh-hasina-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=2022-12-11 |work=CNN |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211221037/https://www.cnn.com/2022/12/11/asia/bangladesh-protests-prime-minister-sheikh-hasina-intl-hnk/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> 

In January 2024, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina secured her fourth straight term in Bangladesh's controversial [[2024 Bangladeshi general election|general election]],  which was boycotted by the main opposition Bangladesh Nationalist Party.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladesh election: PM Sheikh Hasina wins fourth term in controversial vote |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-67889387 |date=7 January 2024}}</ref>

====The fall of Hasina administration (2024)====
{{main|Student-People's uprising}}
[[File:The victory celebration of Bangladeshi student's one point movement.jpg|thumb|Victory march by protesters after the [[resignation of Sheikh Hasina]] in 2024]]
In June 2024, protests began in response to the [[Supreme Court of Bangladesh]] reinstating [[Quota system of Bangladesh Civil Service|a 30% quota for government jobs]] for descendants of [[Mukti Bahini|freedom fighters]], reversing the government decision made in response to the [[2018 Bangladesh quota reform movement]]. Students began to feel like they have a limited opportunity based on merit. The protest, which initially began as a response to the reestablished quota system for government jobs, quickly spread throughout the entire country because of the government's violent response, as well as growing public dissatisfaction against an oppressive government. The situation was further complicated by many other ongoing issues, like the government's inability to manage a prolonged economic downturn, reports of rampant corruption and human rights violations, and the absence of democratic channels for initiating changes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lu |first=Christina |date=2024-08-07 |title=What's Behind Bangladesh's Student Protests? |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/07/18/bangladesh-student-protests-quota-system/ |access-date=2024-08-03 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US |archive-date=4 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804023456/https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/07/18/bangladesh-student-protests-quota-system/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-07-10 |title=Is the system rigged against meritocracy? |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/editorial/news/the-system-rigged-against-meritocracy-3653471 |access-date=2024-08-03 |work=The Daily Star |language=en |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716063251/https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/editorial/news/the-system-rigged-against-meritocracy-3653471 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Ahmed |first1=Redwan |last2=Ellis-Petersen |first2=Hannah |date=2024-07-26 |title=Bangladesh student protests turn into 'mass movement against a dictator' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/jul/26/bangladesh-student-protests-mass-movement-against-dictator |access-date=2024-08-03 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=4 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804023457/https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/jul/26/bangladesh-student-protests-mass-movement-against-dictator |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |author=Charlie Campbell |date=2023-11-02 |title=Sheikh Hasina and the Future of Democracy in Bangladesh |url=https://time.com/6330463/bangladesh-sheikh-hasina-wazed-profile/ |access-date=2024-08-03 |magazine=TIME |language=en |archive-date=4 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104145458/https://time.com/6330463/bangladesh-sheikh-hasina-wazed-profile/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 3 August 2024, coordinators of the [[Anti-discrimination Students Movement]] announced a one-point demand for the resignation and called for "comprehensive non-cooperation".<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://mzamin.com/news.php?news=121182|title=It's now one point|lang=en|work=Manab Zamin|access-date=3 August 2024|archive-date=3 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803124154/https://mzamin.com/news.php?news=121182|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://bonikbarta.net/home/news_description/393604/%E2%80%98One-Point-Demand%E2%80%99-announced-from-Central-Shaheed-Minar|title=One Point Demand' announced from Central Shaheed Minar|lang=en|work=Bonik Barta|access-date=3 August 2024|archive-date=3 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803133904/https://bonikbarta.net/home/news_description/393604/%E2%80%98One-Point-Demand%E2%80%99-announced-from-Central-Shaheed-Minar|url-status=live}}</ref> The following day, violent clashes broke out, resulting in the deaths of 97 people, including students. The coordinators called for a long march to Dhaka to force Hasina out of power on 5 August. That day, a large crowd of protesters made its way through the capital.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-08-05 |title=PM resigned, interim govt to be formed: Army chief |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/pm-resigned-interim-govt-be-formed-army-chief-3669966 |access-date=2024-08-05 |work=The Daily Star |language=en |archive-date=5 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805105328/https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/pm-resigned-interim-govt-be-formed-army-chief-3669966 |url-status=live }}</ref> At 2:30 p.m. [[Bangladesh Standard Time|BST]], Sheikh Hasina resigned and fled to India.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladesh PM Sheikh Hasina resigns and flees country as protesters storm palace |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/ckdgg87lnkdt?post=asset%3Ae6e668c5-08e9-4000-b710-25d40a70f96a#post |access-date=5 August 2024 |work=BBC News |archive-date=5 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805111329/https://www.bbc.com/news/live/ckdgg87lnkdt?post=asset:e6e668c5-08e9-4000-b710-25d40a70f96a#post |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 5 August, the [[Chief of Army Staff (Bangladesh)|chief of army staff]], [[Waker-uz-Zaman]], convened a meeting with representatives from the [[Bangladesh Nationalist Party]] (BNP), [[Jatiya Party (Ershad)]], and [[Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami|Jamaat-e-Islami]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Meet Army Chief Waker-uz-Zaman who just took over after Sheikh Hasina's flight |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/bangladesh-coup-meet-army-chief-waker-uz-zaman-who-took-over-the-reins-after-seikh-hasina-flees-country/articleshow/112287500.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-08-05 |work=The Economic Times |archive-date=5 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805113911/https://m.economictimes.com/news/international/world-news/bangladesh-coup-meet-army-chief-waker-uz-zaman-who-took-over-the-reins-after-seikh-hasina-flees-country/amp_articleshow/112287500.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> and called for the creation of an [[2024 Bangladesh Interim Government|interim government]] within 48 hours, excluding the [[Awami League]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-08-05 |title=Who will run Bangladesh's interim govt? I'm taking full responsibility, says army chief |url=https://www.firstpost.com/world/pm-sheikh-hasina-has-resigned-interim-government-to-run-country-says-bangladesh-army-chief-13801083.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |work=Firstpost |language=en-us |archive-date=5 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805115438/https://www.firstpost.com/world/pm-sheikh-hasina-has-resigned-interim-government-to-run-country-says-bangladesh-army-chief-13801083.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Subsequent reports indicated that [[Muhammad Yunus]], a [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate, had been approached to be the head of the interim government.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Meet Muhammad Yunus, Nobel prize winner, who can become new leader of Bangladesh after... |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-meet-muhammad-yunus-nobel-prize-winner-who-can-become-new-leader-of-bangladesh-after-3100517 |access-date=2024-08-05 |work=DNA |language=en |archive-date=5 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805184023/https://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-meet-muhammad-yunus-nobel-prize-winner-who-can-become-new-leader-of-bangladesh-after-3100517 |url-status=live }}</ref> The nomination of Yunus, who accepted the advisory role in the interim government, has also been supported by prominent figures within the student movement.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Bangladesh protesters want Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus to lead government |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/8/6/bangladesh-protesters-want-nobel-laureate-muhammad-yunus-to-lead-government |access-date=2024-08-06 |publisher=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=6 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806090039/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/8/6/bangladesh-protesters-want-nobel-laureate-muhammad-yunus-to-lead-government |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition, Waker-uz-Zaman pledged an investigation by the military into the preceding incidents of violence and issued an order prohibiting security forces from opening fire on crowds.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-08-05 |title=Bangladeshi PM Sheikh Hasina resigns as widening unrest sees protesters storm her official residence |url=https://apnews.com/article/bangladesh-hasina-student-protest-quota-violence-fdc7f2632c3d8fcbd913e6c0a1903fd4 |access-date=2024-08-05 |work=Associated Press |language=en-us |archive-date=5 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805102752/https://apnews.com/article/bangladesh-hasina-student-protest-quota-violence-fdc7f2632c3d8fcbd913e6c0a1903fd4 |url-status=live }}</ref>