Editing Head of state (section)

==Legitimacy==
The position of head of state can be established in different ways, and with different sources of legitimacy.

===By fiction or fiat===
Power can come from force, but formal [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] is often established, even if only by fictitious claims of continuity (e.g., a forged claim of descent from a previous [[dynasty]]). There have been cases of sovereignty granted by deliberate act, even when accompanied by [[order of succession|orders of succession]] (as may be the case in a dynastic split). Such grants of sovereignty are usually forced, as is common with [[self-determination]] granted after [[Nationalism|nationalist]] revolts. This occurred with the last [[Attalid]] king of Hellenistic [[Pergamon]], who by testament left his realm to Rome to avoid a disastrous conquest.

===By divine appointment===
Under a theocracy, perceived divine status translated into earthly authority under [[divine law]]. This can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, granting a tool for political influence to a [[priest]]hood. In this way, the [[Amun]] priesthood reversed the reforms of Pharaoh [[Akhenaten]] after his death. The division of theocratic power can be disputed, as happened between the Pope and [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in the [[investiture]] conflict when the temporal power sought to control key clergy nominations in order to guarantee popular support, and thereby his own legitimacy, by incorporating the formal ceremony of [[unction]] during [[coronation]].

===By social contract===
The notion of a [[social contract]] holds that the nation—either the whole people or the [[:wikt:electorate|electorate]]—gives a mandate, through acclamation or [[election]].

===By constitution===
Individual heads of state may acquire their position by virtue of a [[Constitution#Distribution of sovereignty|constitution]], typically as a transitional measure as part of establishing the new form of government that the constitution decrees: For example, transitional provision 1 of the [[Constitution of Italy]] states that once the constitution enters into force, the {{ill|Provisional Head of State of Italy|it|Capo provvisorio dello Stato|lt=Provisional Head of State}} would automatically become [[President of Italy]] under it. An extreme example of this approach is [[Seychelles]], where the [[Constitution of Seychelles|1976 Independence Constitution]]'s Article 31 stated that [[James Mancham]] would be the first [[President of Seychelles]] by name, rather than by the fact he was the prime minister of colonial Seychelles immediately before independence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Seychelles-Independence-Constitution-1976.pdf#p27|title=Seychelles Independence Constitution 1976 - Citizenship Rights in Africa Initiative|website=citizenshiprightsafrica.org|access-date=24 July 2022}}</ref>

===By hereditary succession===
[[File:Absolute cognatic primogeniture diagram.svg|thumb|Absolute cognatic primogeniture diagram. Legend: {{unordered list|Grey: incumbent|Square: male|Circle: female|Black: deceased|Diagonal: cannot be displaced}}]]

The position of a monarch is usually [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary]], but in [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies]], there are usually restrictions on the incumbent's exercise of powers and prohibitions on the possibility of choosing a successor by other means than by birth. In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary [[order of succession]], usually within one [[royal family]] tracing its origin through a historical [[dynasty]] or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. However, many cases of uncertain succession in European history have often led to [[War of succession|wars of succession]].

[[Primogeniture]], in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or [[Pater familias|head of family]], with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession.<ref name="NF T">[https://runeberg.org/nfcj/0023.html Tronföljd], ''[[Nordisk familjebok]]'', vol. 30 (1920)</ref> This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the [[Salic law]]. Another variation on agnatic primogeniture was the so-called semi-Salic law, or "agnatic-cognatic primogeniture", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator.<ref name="NF T">[https://runeberg.org/nfcj/0023.html Tronföljd], ''[[Nordisk familjebok]]'', vol. 30 (1920)</ref><ref>[[Statens offentliga utredningar|SOU]] 1977:5 ''Kvinnlig tronföljd'', p. 16.</ref>

Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in [[coregency]] – a senior king and a junior king. Examples include [[Henry the Young King]] of England and the early [[House of Capet|Direct Capetians]] in France.

Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted. In 1980, [[Sweden]], by rewriting its [[Swedish Act of Succession|1810 Act of Succession]], became the first monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.<ref name="sweden as">[http://www.riksdagen.se/Global/dokument/dokument/laws/the-act-of-succession-2012.pdf Swedish Act of Succession (English Translation as of 2012)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208040154/http://www.riksdagen.se/Global/dokument/dokument/laws/the-act-of-succession-2012.pdf |date=8 February 2014 }}, The [[Riksdag]]. Retrieved on 28 August 2013.</ref> Other European monarchies (such as the [[Netherlands]] in 1983, [[Norway]] in 1990 and [[Belgium]] in 1991) have since followed suit. Similar reforms [[2011 proposals to change the rules of royal succession in the Commonwealth realms|were proposed in 2011]] for the [[United Kingdom]] and the other [[Commonwealth realm]]s, which came into effect in 2015 after having been approved by all of the affected nations. Sometimes [[religion]] is affected; under the [[Act of Settlement 1701]] all [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] and all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]] and are skipped in the order of succession.

In some monarchies there may be liberty for the incumbent, or some body convening after the death of the monarch, to choose from eligible members of the [[Royal family|ruling house]], often limited to [[Legitimate child|legitimate]] descendants of the dynasty's founder. Rules of succession may be further limited by [[state religion]], residency, [[Royal intermarriage|equal marriage]] or even permission from the [[legislature]].

Other hereditary systems of succession included [[tanistry]], which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and [[Agnatic seniority]]. In some monarchies, such as [[King of Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]], succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).

===By election===
[[File:Electoral_systems_for_heads_of_state_map_direct.svg|thumb|250x250px|Countries where the [[electoral system]] directly elects their head of state, by type{{legend|#a02c5a|[[Two-round system]] (majority voting)}} {{legend|#ff0000|[[First-past-the-post]] (plurality voting)}}{{legend|#ff80e5|[[Instant-runoff voting]] (ranked-choice majority voting)}}]]
Election usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either directly through popular election, indirectly by members of the legislature or of a special college of [[Indirect election|electors]] (such as the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]] in the [[United States]]), or as an exclusive prerogative. Exclusive prerogative allows the heads of states of constituent monarchies of a federation to choose the head of state for the federation among themselves, as in the [[United Arab Emirates]] and [[Malaysia]]. The Pope, head of state of Vatican City, is chosen by previously appointed [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]] under 80 years of age from among themselves in a [[papal conclave]].

===By appointment===
A head of state can be empowered to designate his successor, such as [[Lord Protector of the Commonwealth]] [[Oliver Cromwell]], who was succeeded by his son [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]].

===By force or revolution===
A head of state may seize power by force or [[revolution]]. This is not the same as the use of force to ''maintain'' power, as is practised by [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] or [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] rulers. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor [[Napoleon I of France]] and King [[Zog of Albania]]. In Spain, general [[Francisco Franco]] adopted the formal title ''Jefe del Estado'', or Chief of State, and established himself as [[regent]] for a vacant monarchy. Uganda's [[Idi Amin]] was one of several who named themselves [[President for Life]].

===By foreign imposition===
A foreign power can establishing a branch of their own dynasty, or one friendly to their interests. This was often the outcome of the wars fought between the [[Roman Empire]] and the [[Parthian Empire]] over control of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], a vital [[buffer state]] between the two realms.
The [[Roman–Parthian War of 58–63]] ended with a compromise: a Parthian prince of the [[Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia|Arsacid]] line would henceforth sit on the Armenian throne, but his nomination had to be approved by the [[Roman emperor]].<ref>Bivar (1983), p. 85</ref>

===Loss===
Apart from violent overthrow, a head of state's position can be lost in several ways, including death, another by expiration of the constitutional term of office, [[abdication]], or resignation. In some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament, as in the case of British King [[Edward VIII]]. The post can also be abolished by constitutional change; in such cases, an incumbent may be allowed to finish their term. Of course, a head of state position will cease to exist if the state itself does.

Heads of state generally enjoy widest inviolability, although some states allow [[impeachment]], or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke the head of state's mandate on exceptional grounds. This may be a common crime, a political sin, or an act by which the head of state violates such provisions as an established religion mandatory for the monarch. By similar procedure, an original mandate may be declared invalid.