Editing Fluorescence (section)

=== Terrestrial ===
==== Amphibians ====
[[File:Hypsiboas punctatus fluorescente.jpg|thumb|Fluorescent [[polka-dot tree frog]] under UV-light]]

Fluorescence is widespread among [[amphibian]]s and has been documented in several families of [[frog]]s, [[salamander]]s and [[caecilian]]s, but the extent of it varies greatly.<ref name=Lamb2020>{{cite journal | author1=Lamb, J.Y. | author2=M.P. Davis | year=2020 | title=Salamanders and other amphibians are aglow with biofluorescence | journal=Scientific Reports | volume=10 | issue=1 | page=2821 | doi=10.1038/s41598-020-59528-9 | pmid=32108141 | pmc=7046780 | bibcode=2020NatSR..10.2821L }}</ref>

The [[polka-dot tree frog]] (''Hypsiboas punctatus''), widely found in South America, was unintentionally discovered to be the first fluorescent amphibian in 2017. The fluorescence was traced to a new compound found in the [[lymph]] and skin glands.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wong |first=Sam |date=13 March 2017 |title=Luminous frog is the first known naturally fluorescent amphibian |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2124466-luminous-frog-is-the-first-known-naturally-fluorescent-amphibian/ |access-date=2017-03-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320143233/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2124466-luminous-frog-is-the-first-known-naturally-fluorescent-amphibian/ |archive-date=20 March 2017}}</ref> The main fluorescent compound is Hyloin-L1 and it gives a blue-green glow when exposed to violet or [[ultraviolet light]]. The scientists behind the discovery suggested that the fluorescence can be used for communication. They speculated that fluorescence possibly is relatively widespread among frogs.<ref>{{cite news |last=King |first=Anthony |date=13 March 2017 |title=Fluorescent frog first down to new molecule |url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/fluorescent-frog-first-down-to-new-molecule-/2500541.article |access-date=2017-03-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322191916/https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/fluorescent-frog-first-down-to-new-molecule-/2500541.article |archive-date=22 March 2017}}</ref> Only a few months later, fluorescence was discovered in the closely related ''[[Hypsiboas atlanticus]]''. Because it is linked to secretions from skin glands, they can also leave fluorescent markings on surfaces where they have been.<ref name=Taboada2017>{{cite journal | author1=Taboada, C. | author2=A.E. Brunetti | author3=C. Alexandre | author4=M.G. Lagorio | author5=J. Faivovich | year=2017 | title=Fluorescent Frogs: A Herpetological Perspective | journal=South American Journal of Herpetology | volume=12 | issue=1 | pages=1–13 | doi=10.2994/SAJH-D-17-00029.1 | s2cid=89815080 | hdl=11336/48638 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In 2019, two other frogs, the tiny [[pumpkin toadlet]] (''Brachycephalus ephippium'') and [[red pumpkin toadlet]] (''B. pitanga'') of southeastern Brazil, were found to have naturally fluorescent skeletons, which are visible through their skin when exposed to ultraviolet light.<ref name=Goutte2019>{{cite journal | author1=Sandra Goutte | author2=Matthew J. Mason | author3=Marta M. Antoniazzi | author4=Carlos Jared | author5=Didier Merle | author6=Lilian Cazes | author7=Luís Felipe Toledo | author8=Hanane el-Hafci | author9=Stéphane Pallu | author10=Hugues Portier | author11=Stefan Schramm | author12=Pierre Gueriau | author13=Mathieu Thoury | year=2019 | title=Intense bone fluorescence reveals hidden patterns in pumpkin toadlets | journal=Scientific Reports | volume=9 | issue=1 | page=5388 | doi=10.1038/s41598-019-41959-8 | pmid=30926879 | pmc=6441030 | bibcode=2019NatSR...9.5388G }}</ref><ref name=Fox2019>{{cite web | author=Fox, A. | title=Scientists discover a frog with glowing bones | url=https://www.science.org/content/article/scientists-discover-frog-glowing-bones | date=2 April 2019 | website=ScienceMag | access-date=9 February 2020 | archive-date=8 March 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308114612/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/04/scientists-discover-frog-glowing-bones | url-status=live }}</ref> It was initially speculated that the fluorescence supplemented their already [[aposematic]] colours (they are toxic) or that it was related to [[mate choice]] ([[species recognition]] or determining fitness of a potential partner),<ref name=Goutte2019/> but later studies indicate that the former explanation is unlikely, as predation attempts on the toadlets appear to be unaffected by the presence/absence of fluorescence.<ref name=Reboucas2019>{{cite journal | author1=Rebouças, R. | author2=A.B. Carollo | author3=M.d.O. Freitas | author4=C. Lambertini | author5=R.M. Nogueira dos Santos | author6=L.F. Toledo | year=2019 | title=  Conservation Status of Brachycephalus Toadlets (Anura: Brachycephalidae) from the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest| journal= Diversity| volume=55 | issue=1 | pages=39–47 | doi=10.3390/d11090150 | doi-access=free | bibcode=2019Diver..11..150B }}</ref>

In 2020 it was confirmed that green or yellow fluorescence is widespread not only in adult frogs that are exposed to blue or ultraviolet light, but also among [[tadpole]]s, salamanders and caecilians. The extent varies greatly depending on species; in some it is highly distinct and in others it is barely noticeable. It can be based on their skin pigmentation, their mucus or their bones.<ref name=Lamb2020/>

==== Butterflies ====
[[swallowtail butterfly|Swallowtail]] (''Papilio'') butterflies have complex systems for emitting fluorescent light. Their wings contain pigment-infused crystals that provide directed fluorescent light. These crystals function to produce fluorescent light best when they absorb [[radiance]] from sky-blue light (wavelength about 420&nbsp;nm). The wavelengths of light that the butterflies see the best correspond to the absorbance of the crystals in the butterfly's wings. This likely functions to enhance the capacity for signaling.<ref>
{{cite journal
 | pmid = 16293753
 | year = 2005
 | last1 = Vukusic
 | first1 = P
 | title = Directionally controlled fluorescence emission in butterflies
 | journal = Science
 | volume = 310
 | issue = 5751
 | page = 1151
 | last2 = Hooper
 | first2 = I
 | s2cid = 43857104
 | doi = 10.1126/science.1116612
}}</ref>

==== Parrots ====
[[Parrots]] have fluorescent [[plumage]] that may be used in mate signaling. A study using mate-choice experiments on [[budgerigars]] (''Melopsittacus undulates'') found compelling support for fluorescent sexual signaling, with both males and females significantly preferring birds with the fluorescent experimental stimulus. This study suggests that the fluorescent plumage of parrots is not simply a by-product of [[pigmentation]], but instead an adapted sexual signal. Considering the intricacies of the pathways that produce fluorescent pigments, there may be significant costs involved. Therefore, individuals exhibiting strong fluorescence may be honest indicators of high individual quality, since they can deal with the associated costs.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.295.5552.92| pmid = 11778040| title = Fluorescent Signaling in Parrots| journal = Science| volume = 295| issue = 5552| page = 92| year = 2002| last1 = Arnold| first1 = K. E.| citeseerx = 10.1.1.599.1127}}</ref>

==== Arachnids ====
[[File:Sorpion Under Blacklight edit.jpg|thumb|Fluorescing scorpion]]
Spiders fluoresce under UV light and possess a huge diversity of fluorophores. Andrews, Reed, & Masta noted that spiders are the only known group in which fluorescence is "taxonomically widespread, variably expressed, evolutionarily labile, and probably under selection and potentially of ecological importance for intraspecific and interspecific signaling".<ref name=Andrews-Reed-Masta-2007/> They showed that fluorescence evolved multiple times across spider taxa, with novel fluorophores evolving during spider diversification.

In some spiders, ultraviolet cues are important for predator–prey interactions, intraspecific communication, and camouflage-matching with fluorescent flowers. Differing ecological contexts could favor inhibition or enhancement of fluorescence expression, depending upon whether fluorescence helps spiders be cryptic or makes them more conspicuous to predators. Therefore, natural selection could be acting on expression of fluorescence across spider species.<ref name=Andrews-Reed-Masta-2007>
{{cite journal
 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = K.
 | last2 = Reed    | first2 = S.M.
 | last3 = Masta   | first3 = S.E.
 | year = 2007
 | title = Spiders fluoresce variably across many taxa
 | journal = Biology Letters
 | volume = 3  | issue = 3  | pages = 265–267
 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0016
 | pmid = 17412670  | pmc = 2104643
}}</ref>

Scorpions are also fluorescent, in their case due to the presence of [[beta-carboline]] in their cuticles.<ref name=Stachel-Stockwell-vanVranken-1999>
{{cite journal
 | last1 = Stachel     | first1 = S.J.
 | last2 = Stockwell   | first2 = S.A.
 | last3 = van Vranken | first3 = D.L.
 | year = 1999
 | title = The fluorescence of scorpions and cataractogenesis
 | journal = Chemistry & Biology
 | volume = 6  | issue = 8  | pages = 531–539
 | doi = 10.1016/S1074-5521(99)80085-4
 | doi-access = free   | pmid=10421760
}}
</ref>

==== Platypus ====
In 2020 fluorescence was reported for several [[platypus]] specimens.<ref>
{{cite journal
 | last = Spaeth  | first = P.
 | year = 2020
 | title = Biofluorescence in the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus)
 | journal = Mammalia
 | volume = 85  | issue = 2  | pages = 179–181
 | doi = 10.1515/mammalia-2020-0027
 | doi-access = free
}}</ref>

==== Plants ====
Many plants are fluorescent due to the presence of [[chlorophyll]], which is probably the most widely distributed fluorescent molecule, producing red emission under a range of excitation wavelengths.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x2PZRC6Zd5sC&q=Chlorophyll+fluoresces+a+weak+red+under+ultraviolet+light.&pg=PA12|title=Photobiology of Higher Plants|last=McDonald|first=Maurice S.|date=2003-06-02|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780470855232|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221200631/https://books.google.com/books?id=x2PZRC6Zd5sC&pg=PA12&dq=Chlorophyll+fluoresces+a+weak+red+under+ultraviolet+light.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiRlYCz85vYAhWJgVQKHZhsDrYQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=Chlorophyll%20fluoresces%20a%20weak%20red%20under%20ultraviolet%20light.&f=false|archive-date=21 December 2017}}</ref> This attribute of chlorophyll is commonly used by ecologists to measure photosynthetic efficiency.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://climexhandbook.w.uib.no/2019/11/03/chlorophyll-fluorescence/|title=5.1 Chlorophyll fluorescence – ClimEx Handbook|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-14|archive-date=14 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114153538/https://climexhandbook.w.uib.no/2019/11/03/chlorophyll-fluorescence/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The ''Mirabilis jalapa'' flower contains violet, fluorescent betacyanins and yellow, fluorescent betaxanthins. Under white light, parts of the flower containing only betaxanthins appear yellow, but in areas where both betaxanthins and betacyanins are present, the visible fluorescence of the flower is faded due to internal light-filtering mechanisms. Fluorescence was previously suggested to play a role in [[pollinator]] attraction, however, it was later found that the visual signal by fluorescence is negligible compared to the visual signal of light reflected by the flower.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s00114-010-0709-4| title = Is the flower fluorescence relevant in biocommunication?| journal = Naturwissenschaften| volume = 97| issue = 10| pages = 915–924| year = 2010| last1 = Iriel | first1 = A. A. | last2 = Lagorio | first2 = M. A. G. |bibcode = 2010NW.....97..915I | pmid=20811871| s2cid = 43503960}}</ref>