Editing Arsenic (section)

=== Legal limits, food, and drink ===

In the United States since 2006, the maximum concentration in drinking water allowed by the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) is 10&nbsp;ppb<ref>[http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/arsenic/regulations.cfm Arsenic Rule]. U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]]. Adopted 22 January 2001; effective 23 January 2006.</ref> and the FDA set the same standard in 2005 for bottled water.<ref name="fda_metals">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ChemicalContaminantsMetalsNaturalToxinsPesticides/ucm360023.htm |title=Supporting Document for Action Level for Arsenic in Apple Juice |publisher=Fda.gov |access-date=2013-08-21 }}</ref> The Department of Environmental Protection for New Jersey set a drinking water limit of 5&nbsp;ppb in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.nj.us/dep/dsr/arsenic/guide.htm |title=A Homeowner's Guide to Arsenic in Drinking Water |publisher=New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection |access-date=2013-08-21 }}</ref> The [[IDLH]] (immediately dangerous to life and health) value for arsenic metal and inorganic arsenic compounds is 5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (5&nbsp;ppb). The [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] has set the [[permissible exposure limit]] (PEL) to a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.01&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (0.01&nbsp;ppb), and the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has set the [[recommended exposure limit]] (REL) to a 15-minute constant exposure of 0.002&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (0.002&nbsp;ppb).<ref name="PGCH">{{PGCH|0038}}</ref> The PEL for organic arsenic compounds is a TWA of 0.5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref>{{PGCH|0039}}</ref> (0.5&nbsp;ppb).

In 2008, based on its ongoing testing of a wide variety of American foods for toxic chemicals,<ref>[https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/TotalDietStudy/default.htm Total Diet Study] and [https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/ChemicalContaminants/ucm2006907.htm Toxic Elements Program]</ref> the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] set the "level of concern" for inorganic arsenic in apple and pear juices at 23&nbsp;ppb, based on non-carcinogenic effects, and began blocking importation of products in excess of this level; it also required recalls for non-conforming domestic products.<ref name="fda_metals" /> In 2011, the national ''[[The Dr. Oz Show|Dr. Oz]]'' television show broadcast a program highlighting tests performed by an independent lab hired by the producers. Though the methodology was disputed (it did not distinguish between organic and inorganic arsenic) the tests showed levels of arsenic up to 36&nbsp;ppb.<ref>{{cite news|author=Kotz, Deborah |url=http://www.boston.com/community/moms/articles/2011/09/14/does_apple_juice_have_unsafe_levels_of_arsenic/ |title=Does apple juice have unsafe levels of arsenic? – The Boston Globe |newspaper=Boston.com |date=14 September 2011 |access-date=2013-08-21 }}</ref> In response, the FDA tested the worst brand from the ''Dr.'' ''Oz'' show and found much lower levels. Ongoing testing found 95% of the apple juice samples were below the level of concern. Later testing by [[Consumer Reports]] showed inorganic arsenic at levels slightly above 10&nbsp;ppb, and the organization urged parents to reduce consumption.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://consumerist.com/2011/11/30/consumer-reports-study-finds-high-levels-of-arsenic-lead-in-apple-juice/|title=Consumer Reports Study Finds High Levels of Arsenic & Lead in Some Fruit Juice|author=Morran, Chris |work=Consumerist |date=30 November 2011|publisher=consumerist.com }}</ref> In July 2013, on consideration of consumption by children, chronic exposure, and carcinogenic effect, the FDA established an "action level" of 10&nbsp;ppb for apple juice, the same as the drinking water standard.<ref name="fda_metals" />

Concern about arsenic in rice in Bangladesh was raised in 2002, but at the time only Australia had a legal limit for food (one milligram per kilogram, or 1000 ppb).<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.nature.com/news/2002/021122/full/news021118-11.html |title= Arsenic contamination of Bangladeshi paddy field soils: Implications for rice contribution to arsenic consumption|journal=Nature |date=22 November 2002 |doi=10.1038/news021118-11 |access-date=2013-08-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3141-tainted-wells-pour-arsenic-onto-food-crops.html#.UhPasx-37Vs |title=Tainted wells pour arsenic onto food crops |magazine=New Scientist |date=6 December 2002 |access-date=2013-08-21 }}</ref> Concern was raised about people who were eating U.S. rice exceeding WHO standards for personal arsenic intake in 2005.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Peplow, Mark |doi=10.1038/news050801-5 |title=US rice may carry an arsenic burden |journal= Nature News|date=2 August 2005 }}</ref> In 2011, the People's Republic of China set a food standard of 150&nbsp;ppb for arsenic.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-12-rice-source-arsenic-exposure.html |title = Rice as a source of arsenic exposure}}</ref>

In the United States in 2012, testing by separate groups of researchers at the Children's Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research Center at [[Dartmouth College]] (early in the year, focusing on urinary levels in children)<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1289/ehp.1205014|title=Rice Consumption and Urinary Arsenic Concentrations in U.S. Children|year=2012|last1=Davis|first1=Matthew A.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Todd A.|last3=Cottingham|first3=Kathryn L.|last4=Gilbert-Diamond|first4=Diane|last5=Punshon|first5=Tracy|last6=Karagas|first6=Margaret R.|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=120|issue=10|pages=1418–1424|pmid=23008276|pmc=3491944|bibcode=2012EnvHP.120.1418D }}</ref> and [[Consumer Reports]] (in November)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2012/03/02/147781035/high-levels-of-arsenic-found-in-rice |title=High Levels of Arsenic Found in Rice |website=NPR.org |date=2 March 2012 |access-date=2013-08-21 }}</ref><ref name="cr_rice">{{cite web|url=http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2012/11/arsenic-in-your-food/index.htm |title=Arsenic in Your Food {{pipe}} Consumer Reports Investigation |work=Consumer Reports |date=1 November 2012 |access-date=2013-08-21 }}</ref> found levels of arsenic in rice that resulted in calls for the FDA to set limits.<ref name="foodsafetynews">[http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2012/02/lawmakers-urge-fda-to-act-on-arsenic-standards/ Lawmakers Urge FDA to Act on Arsenic Standards]. Foodsafetynews.com (24 February 2012). Retrieved 2012-05-23.</ref> The FDA released some testing results in September 2012,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/forconsumers/consumerupdates/ucm319827.htm |title=FDA Looks for Answers on Arsenic in Rice |publisher=Fda.gov |date=19 September 2012 |access-date=2013-08-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/Metals/ucm319870.htm |title=Arsenic in Rice |publisher=Fda.gov |access-date=2013-08-21 }}</ref> and as of July 2013, is still collecting data in support of a new potential regulation. It has not recommended any changes in consumer behavior.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/Metals/ucm319948.htm |title=Questions & Answers: FDA's Analysis of Arsenic in Rice and Rice Products |publisher=Fda.gov |date=21 March 2013 |access-date=2013-08-21 }}</ref>

Consumer Reports recommended:
# That the EPA and FDA eliminate arsenic-containing fertilizer, drugs, and pesticides in food production;
# That the FDA establish a legal limit for food;
# That industry change production practices to lower arsenic levels, especially in food for children; and
# That consumers test home water supplies, eat a varied diet, and cook rice with excess water, then draining it off (reducing inorganic arsenic by about one third along with a slight reduction in vitamin content).<ref name="cr_rice" />
# Evidence-based public health advocates also recommend that, given the lack of regulation or labeling for arsenic in the U.S., children should eat no more than 1.5 servings per week of rice and should not drink rice milk as part of their daily diet before age 5.<ref name="berkeleywellness">{{cite web|title=Arsenic in Rice: What You Need to Know|url=http://www.berkeleywellness.com/healthy-eating/food-safety/article/arsenic-rice-should-you-worry|website=UC Berkeley Wellness|access-date=3 September 2014}}</ref> They also offer recommendations for adults and infants on how to limit arsenic exposure from rice, drinking water, and fruit juice.<ref name="berkeleywellness" />
A 2014 [[World Health Organization]] advisory conference was scheduled to consider limits of 200–300&nbsp;ppb for rice.<ref name="cr_rice" />

====Reducing arsenic content in rice====
[[File:Improved rice cooking approach to maximise arsenic removal while preserving nutrient elements.jpg|thumb|300px|An improved rice cooking approach to maximise arsenic removal while preserving nutrient elements<ref name="cookingmethod" />]]
In 2020, scientists assessed multiple preparation procedures of rice for their capacity to reduce arsenic content and preserve nutrients, recommending a procedure involving [[Parboiling#Parboiled rice|parboiling]] and water-absorption.<ref>{{cite news |title=New way of cooking rice removes arsenic and retains mineral nutrients, study shows |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-11-cooking-rice-arsenic-retains-mineral.html |access-date=10 November 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="cookingmethod">{{cite journal |title=Improved rice cooking approach to maximise arsenic removal while preserving nutrient elements |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=29 October 2020 |pages=143341 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143341 |last1=Menon |first1=Manoj |last2=Dong |first2=Wanrong |last3=Chen |first3=Xumin |last4=Hufton |first4=Joseph |last5=Rhodes |first5=Edward J. |volume=755 |issue=Pt 2 |pmid=33153748 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=How much arsenic is in your rice? Consumer Reports' new data and guidelines are important for everyone but especially for gluten avoiders |url=https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2015/01/how-much-arsenic-is-in-your-rice/index.htm |access-date=15 February 2022 |work=consumerreports.org}}</ref>