Editing Petroleum (section)

== Environmental effects ==
{{Main|Environmental impact of the petroleum industry}}

===Climate===
[[File:Dieselrainbow.jpg|thumb|A diesel fuel spill on a road]]
[[File:Carbonate system of seawater.svg|thumb|Seawater acidification]]
{{As of|2018}}, about a quarter of annual global [[greenhouse gas emissions]] is the carbon dioxide from burning petroleum (plus [[methane leaks]] from the industry).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |last2=Roser |first2=Max |last3=Rosado |first3=Pablo |date=May 11, 2020 |title={{CO2}} emissions by fuel |url=https://ourworldindata.org/emissions-by-fuel |url-status=live |journal=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103122924/https://ourworldindata.org/emissions-by-fuel |archive-date=November 3, 2020 |access-date=January 22, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Methane Tracker 2020 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/methane-tracker-2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119102518/https://www.iea.org/reports/methane-tracker-2020 |archive-date=January 19, 2021 |access-date=January 22, 2021 |website=IEA |date=March 30, 2020 |language=en-GB}}</ref>{{efn|12.4 gigatonnes petroleum (and about 1 Gt CO<sub>2</sub> eq from methane)/50 gigatonnes total.}} Along with the burning of coal, petroleum combustion is the largest contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marland |first1=Gregg |last2=Houghton |first2=R. A. |last3=Gillett |first3=Nathan P. |last4=Conway |first4=Thomas J. |last5=Ciais |first5=Philippe |last6=Buitenhuis |first6=Erik T. |last7=Field |first7=Christopher B. |last8=Raupach |first8=Michael R. |last9=Quéré |first9=Corinne Le |date=November 20, 2007 |title=Contributions to accelerating atmospheric {{CO2}} growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=47 |pages=18866–18870 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10418866C |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702737104 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2141868 |pmid=17962418 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=Bo |last2=Zaehle |first2=Sönke |last3=Wright |first3=Rebecca |last4=Wiltshire |first4=Andrew J. |last5=Walker |first5=Anthony P. |last6=Viovy |first6=Nicolas |last7=Werf |first7=Guido R. van der |last8=Laan-Luijkx |first8=Ingrid T. van der |last9=Tubiello |first9=Francesco N. |date=December 5, 2018 |title=Global Carbon Budget 2018 |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=2141–2194 |bibcode=2018ESSD...10.2141L |doi=10.5194/essd-10-2141-2018 |issn=1866-3508 |doi-access=free|hdl=21.11116/0000-0002-518C-5 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>  Atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> has risen over the last 150 years to current levels of over 415&nbsp;[[ppmv]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=US Department of Commerce |first=NOAA |title=Global Monitoring Laboratory – Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070316011636/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ |archive-date=March 16, 2007 |access-date=May 24, 2020 |website=www.esrl.noaa.gov |language=EN-US}}</ref> from the [[Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere#Concentrations in the geologic past|180–300&nbsp;ppmv of the prior 800 thousand years]].<ref>[http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/historical-trends-in-carbon-dioxide-concentrations-and-temperature-on-a-geological-and-recent-time-scale Historical trends in carbon dioxide concentrations and temperature, on a geological and recent time scale] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724175732/http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/historical-trends-in-carbon-dioxide-concentrations-and-temperature-on-a-geological-and-recent-time-scale |date=July 24, 2011 }}. (June 2007). In UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. Retrieved 19:14, February 19, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5314592.stm Deep ice tells long climate story] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830193909/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5314592.stm |date=August 30, 2007 }}. Retrieved 19:14, February 19, 2011.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell, John F.B. |year=1989 |title=The "Greenhouse" Effect and Climate Change |url=http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/envs501/downloads/Mitchell |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=115–139 |bibcode=1989RvGeo..27..115M |citeseerx=10.1.1.459.471 |doi=10.1029/RG027i001p00115 |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20080904222649/http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/envs501/downloads/Mitchell |archive-date=September 4, 2008}}</ref> The rise in Arctic temperature has reduced the minimum [[Arctic ice pack]] to {{convert|4320000|km2|abbr=on|}}, a loss of almost half since satellite measurements started in 1979.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Change |first=NASA Global Climate |title=Arctic Sea Ice Minimum |url=https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524202942/https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice/ |archive-date=May 24, 2020 |access-date=May 24, 2020 |website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet}}</ref>

[[Ocean acidification]] is the increase in the acidity of the Earth's oceans caused by the uptake of [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) from the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]].The saturation state of calcium carbonate decreases with the uptake of carbon dioxide in the ocean.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Ulrich |last2=Paul |first2=Carolin |last3=Moustaka-Gouni |first3=Maria |date=May 20, 2015 |title=Warming and Ocean Acidification Effects on Phytoplankton—From Species Shifts to Size Shifts within Species in a Mesocosm Experiment |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=e0125239 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1025239S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0125239 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4439082 |pmid=25993440 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This increase in acidity inhibits all marine life—having a greater effect on smaller organisms as well as shelled organisms (see [[scallops]]).<ref>{{Cite news |date=February 26, 2014 |title=Acidic ocean deadly for Vancouver Island scallop industry |work=cbc.ca |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/acidic-ocean-deadly-for-vancouver-island-scallop-industry-1.2551662 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427195837/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/acidic-ocean-deadly-for-vancouver-island-scallop-industry-1.2551662 |archive-date=April 27, 2014}}</ref>

=== Extraction ===
Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool). There are many methods on extracting the oil from the reservoirs for example; mechanical shaking,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwab |first1=A. P. |last2=Su |first2=J. |last3=Wetzel |first3=S. |last4=Pekarek |first4=S. |last5=Banks |first5=M. K. |date=June 1, 1999 |title=Extraction of Petroleum Hydrocarbons from Soil by Mechanical Shaking |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es9809758 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1940–1945 |bibcode=1999EnST...33.1940S |doi=10.1021/es9809758 |issn=0013-936X}}</ref> water-in-oil emulsion, and [[specialty chemicals]] called [[demulsifiers]] that separate the oil from water. Oil extraction is costly and often environmentally damaging. Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturb the surrounding marine environment.<ref>[http://www.offshore-environment.com/discharges.html Waste discharges during the offshore oil and gas activity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926140659/http://www.offshore-environment.com/discharges.html |date=September 26, 2009 }} by Stanislave Patin, tr. Elena Cascio</ref>

=== Oil spills ===
{{Further|Oil spill|List of oil spills}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 230
| image1 = Oil-spill.jpg
| caption1 = Kelp after an oil spill.
| image2 = Oil Slick in the Timor Sea September-2009.jpg
| caption2 = Oil slick from the [[Montara oil spill]] in the Timor Sea, September 2009.
| image3 = PrestigeVolunteersInGaliciaCoast.jpg
| caption3 = Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the [[Prestige oil spill]].
}}

Crude oil and refined fuel [[Oil spill|spills]] from [[tanker ship]] accidents have damaged natural [[ecosystem]]s and human livelihoods in [[Alaska]], the [[Gulf of Mexico]], the [[Galápagos Islands]], France and many [[List of oil spills|other places]].

The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill]], [[SS Atlantic Empress]], [[Amoco Cadiz]]). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill]].

Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin [[oil slick]] which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish, and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly [[bulldozed]] around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower. The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on the {{SS|Torrey Canyon}} wreck produced poor results;<ref>[[Torrey Canyon oil spill|Torrey Canyon bombing by the Navy and RAF]]</ref> modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the [[Prestige oil spill|''Prestige'' oil spill]] or the [[MV Erika|''Erika'']] oil spill.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pumping of the Erika cargo |url=http://www.total.com/en/group/news/special_report_erika/erika_measures_total/erika_pumping_cargo_11379.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119225756/http://www.total.com/en/group/news/special_report_erika/erika_measures_total/erika_pumping_cargo_11379.htm |archive-date=November 19, 2008 |access-date=August 29, 2010 |publisher=Total.com}}</ref>

Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen heterocyclic compounds, such as [[pyridine]], [[picoline]], and [[quinoline]] are reported as contaminants associated with crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been found at legacy [[creosote|wood treatment]] sites. These compounds have a very high water solubility, and thus tend to dissolve and move with water. Certain naturally occurring bacteria, such as ''[[Micrococcus]]'', ''[[Arthrobacter]]'', and ''[[Rhodococcus]]'' have been shown to degrade these contaminants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sims |first1=Gerald K. |last2=O'Loughlin |first2=Edward J. |last3=Crawford |first3=Ronald L. |year=1989 |title=Degradation of pyridines in the environment |journal=Critical Reviews in Environmental Control |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=309–340 |doi=10.1080/10643388909388372|bibcode=1989CRvEC..19..309S }}</ref>

Because petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in the environment does not need to be the result of human causes such as accidents and routine activities ([[seismic]] exploration, [[Boring (earth)|drilling]], extraction, refining and combustion). Phenomena such as [[seeps]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seeps Home Page |url=http://seeps.wr.usgs.gov/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820012319/http://seeps.wr.usgs.gov/ |archive-date=August 20, 2008 |access-date=May 17, 2010}} Natural Oil and Gas Seeps in California</ref> and [[tar pit]]s are examples of areas that petroleum affects without man's involvement.

=== Tarballs ===
A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with [[tar]], which is a human-made product derived from pine trees or refined from petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean. Tarballs are an aquatic [[pollutant]] in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for example in the Santa Barbara Channel of California<ref name="itah">{{Cite journal |last1=Itah A.Y. |last2=Essien J.P. |date=Oct 2005 |title=Growth Profile and Hydrocarbonoclastic Potential of Microorganisms Isolated from Tarballs in the Bight of Bonny, Nigeria |journal=World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume=21 |issue=6–7 |pages=1317–1322 |doi=10.1007/s11274-004-6694-z |s2cid=84888286}}</ref><ref name="hostettler">{{Cite journal |last1=Hostettler |first1=Frances D. |last2=Rosenbauer |first2=Robert J. |last3=Lorenson |first3=Thomas D. |last4=Dougherty |first4=Jennifer |year=2004 |title=Geochemical characterization of tarballs on beaches along the California coast. Part I – Shallow seepage impacting the Santa Barbara Channel Islands, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa and San Miguel |journal=Organic Geochemistry |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=725–746 |bibcode=2004OrGeo..35..725H |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2004.01.022}}</ref> or in the Gulf of Mexico off Texas.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Drew Jubera |date=August 1987 |title=Texas Primer: The Tar Ball |url=http://www.texasmonthly.com/story/texas-primer-tar-ball |url-status=live |magazine=Texas Monthly |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707102758/http://www.texasmonthly.com/story/texas-primer-tar-ball |archive-date=July 7, 2015 |access-date=October 20, 2014}}</ref> Their concentration and features have been used to assess the extent of [[oil spills]]. Their composition can be used to identify their sources of origin,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Knap Anthony H |last2=Burns Kathryn A |last3=Dawson Rodger |last4=Ehrhardt Manfred |last5=Palmork Karsten H |date=December 1984 |title=Dissolved/dispersed hydrocarbons, tarballs and the surface microlayer: Experiences from an IOC/UNEP Workshop in Bermuda |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=313–319 |doi=10.1016/0025-326X(86)90217-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Zhendi |last2=Fingas |first2=Merv |last3=Landriault |first3=Michael |last4=Sigouin |first4=Lise |last5=Castle |first5=Bill |last6=Hostetter |first6=David |last7=Zhang |first7=Dachung |last8=Spencer |first8=Brad |date=July 1998 |title=Identification and Linkage of Tarballs from the Coasts of Vancouver Island and Northern California Using GC/MS and Isotopic Techniques |journal=Journal of High Resolution Chromatography |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=383–395 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-4168(19980701)21:7<383::AID-JHRC383>3.0.CO;2-3}}</ref> and tarballs themselves may be dispersed over long distances by deep sea currents.<ref name="hostettler" /> They are slowly decomposed by bacteria, including ''[[Chromobacterium violaceum]]'', ''[[Cladosporium resinae]]'', ''[[Bacillus submarinus]]'', ''[[Micrococcus varians]]'', ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'', ''[[Candida marina]]'' and ''[[Saccharomyces estuari]]''.<ref name="itah" />

=== Whales ===
[[File:Natural whale oil bottle.jpg|thumb|A bottle of unrefined [[whale oil]]]]
James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from [[extinction]] by providing an inexpensive substitute for [[whale oil]], thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat [[whaling]],<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120315153109/http://newscotland1398.ca/99/gesner-whales.html How Capitalism Saved the Whales]}} by James S. Robbins, ''The Freeman'', August 1992.</ref> but others say that fossil fuels increased whaling with most whales being killed in the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=York |first=Richard |date=January 1, 2017 |title=Why Petroleum Did Not Save the Whales |journal=Socius |language=en |volume=3 |page=2378023117739217 |doi=10.1177/2378023117739217 |issn=2378-0231 |s2cid=115153877 |quote=Ironically, even though fossil fuels provided substitutes for the main uses of whale oil, the rise of fossil fuel use in the nineteenth century served to increase the intensity of whaling. |doi-access=free}}</ref>