Editing Mongolian language (section)

==Syntax==
=== Differential case marking ===
Mongolian uses differential case marking, being a regular [[differential object marking]] (DOM) language. DOM emerges from a complicated interaction of factors such as referentiality, [[animacy]] and [[Topic and comment|topicality]].

Mongolian also exhibits a specific type of differential subject marking (DSM), in which the subjects of embedded clauses (including adverbial clauses) occur with accusative case.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Guntsetseg|first=Dolgor|title=Differential Case Marking in Mongolian|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303336972|access-date=16 March 2020|website=Research Gate}}</ref>

===Phrase structure===
The [[noun phrase]] has the order: demonstrative pronoun/[[Numeral (linguistics)|numeral]], adjective, noun.<ref>Guntsetseg (2008): 55.</ref><ref name=":2" /> Attributive sentences precede the whole NP. Titles or occupations of people, low numerals indicating groups, and [[topic–comment|focus]] clitics are put behind the head noun.<ref>Tserenpil and Kullmann (2005): 237, 347.</ref> [[Possessive pronoun]]s (in different forms) may either precede or follow the NP.<ref>Svantesson (2003): 164–165.</ref> Examples:

{{interlinear|indent=3
|bid-nii uulz-san ter saikhan zaluu-gaas ch
|we-GEN meet-PRF that beautiful young.man-ABL FOC
|'even from that beautiful young man that we have met'}}

{{interlinear|indent=3
|Dorj bagsh maan
|Dorj teacher our
|'our teacher Dorj'}}

The verbal phrase consists of the [[Predicate (grammar)|predicate]] in the center, preceded by its [[complement (linguistics)|complements]] and by the adverbials modifying it and followed (mainly if the predicate is sentence-final) by [[modal particle]]s,<ref>Mönh-Amgalan (1998).</ref> as in the following example with predicate ''bichsen'':

{{interlinear|indent=3
|ter khel-ekh-güi-geer üün-iig bich-sen shüü
|s/he without:saying it-ACC write-PRF PTC
|'s/he wrote it without saying [so] [i.e. without saying that s/he would do so, or that s/he had done so], I can assure you.'}}

In this clause the adverbial, ''khelekhgüigeer'' 'without saying [so]' must precede the predicate's complement, ''üüniig'' 'it-{{smallcaps|accusative}}' in order to avoid syntactic ambiguity, since ''khelekhgüigeer'' is itself derived from a verb and hence an ''üüniig'' preceding it could be construed as its complement. If the adverbial was an adjective such as ''khurdan'' 'fast', it could optionally immediately precede the predicate. There are also cases in which the adverb must immediately precede the predicate.<ref>Sečenbaγatur (2003): 167.</ref>

For Khalkha, the most complete treatment of the verbal forms is by Luvsanvandan (ed.) (1987). However, the analysis of predication presented here, while valid for Khalkha, is adapted from the description of Khorchin.<ref>Matsuoka (2007)</ref>

Most often, of course, the predicate consists of a verb. However, there are several types of nominal predicative constructions, with or without a [[copula (linguistics)|copula]].<ref>Hashimoto (2004)</ref> [[coverb|Auxiliaries]] that express direction and [[Lexical aspect|aktionsart]] (among other meanings) can with the assistance of a linking converb occupy the immediate postverbal position; e.g.
{{interlinear|indent=3
|uuj orkhison
|drink-CVB leave-PERF
|'drank up'}}

The next position is filled by converb suffixes in connection with the auxiliary, ''baj-'' 'to be', e.g.
{{interlinear|indent=3
|ter güij baina
|s/he run-CVB be-{{gcl|NPAST|nonpast}}
|'she is running'}}

Suffixes occupying this position express [[grammatical aspect]]; e.g. [[progressive aspect|progressive]] and [[resultative]]. In the next position, participles followed by ''baj-'' may follow, e.g.,
{{interlinear|indent=3
|ter irsen baina
|s/he come-PERF be-{{gcl|NPAST|nonpast}}
|'he has come'}}

Here, an explicit [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]] and habituality can be marked, which is aspectual in meaning as well. This position may be occupied by multiple suffixes in a single predication, and it can still be followed by a converbal Progressive. The last position is occupied by suffixes that express tense, evidentiality, modality, and aspect.

===Clauses===
Unmarked phrase order is [[subject (grammar)|subject]]–[[object (grammar)|object]]–predicate.<ref>Guntsetseg (2008): 54.</ref><ref name=":2" /> While the predicate generally has to remain in clause-final position, the other phrases are free to change order or to wholly disappear.<ref>Tserenpil and Kullmann (2005): 88, 363–364.</ref> The topic tends to be placed clause-initially, new information rather at the end of the clause.<ref>Apatoczky (2005)</ref> Topic can be overtly marked with ''bol'', which can also mark contrastive focus,<ref>Hammar (1983): 45–80.</ref> overt additive focus ('even, also') can be marked with the clitic ''ch'',<ref>Kang (2000)</ref> and overt restrictive focus with the clitic ''l'' ('only').<ref>Tserenpil and Kullmann (2005): 348–349.</ref>

The inventory of [[Grammatical voice|voices]] in Mongolian consists of passive, [[causative]], [[reciprocal (grammar)|reciprocal]], [[plurative]], and cooperative. In a passive sentence, the verb takes the suffix -''gd''- and the agent takes either dative or instrumental case, the first of which is more common. In the causative, the verb takes the suffix -''uul''-, the causee (the person caused to do something) in a transitive action (e.g. 'raise') takes dative or instrumental case, and the causee in an intransitive action (e.g. 'rise') takes accusative case. Causative morphology is also used in some passive contexts:

{{interlinear|indent=3
|Bi tüün-d khuurt-san
|I that.one-DAT fool-CAUS-PRF
|'I was fooled by her/him'.}}

The semantic attribute of [[animacy]] is syntactically important: thus the sentence, 'the bread was eaten by me', which is acceptable in English, would not be acceptable in Mongolian. The reciprocal voice is marked by -''ld''-, the plurative by -''cgaa''-, and the cooperative by -''lc''-.<ref>Sečenbaγatur (2003): 116–123.</ref>

Mongolian allows for adjectival depictives that relate to either the subject or the direct object, e.g. ''Liena nücgen untdag'' 'Lena sleeps naked', while adjectival resultatives are marginal.<ref>Brosig (2009)</ref>

=== Complex sentences ===
One way to conjoin clauses is to have the first clause end in a converb, as in the following example using the converb ''-bol'':

{{interlinear|indent=3
|bid üün-iig ol-bol cham-d ög-nö
|we it-ACC find-COND.CVB you.FAM-DAT give-FUT
|'if we find it we'll give it to you'}}

Some verbal nouns in the dative (or less often in the instrumental) function very similar to converbs:<ref>Svantesson (2003): 172.</ref> e.g. replacing ''olbol'' in the preceding sentence with ''olohod'' find-{{smallcaps|imperfective-dative}} yields 'when we find it we'll give it to you'. Quite often, postpositions govern complete clauses. In contrast, conjunctions take verbal nouns without case:<ref>See Sečenbaγatur (2003): 176–182 (who uses the term "postposition" for both and the term "conjunction" for junctors).</ref>

{{interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=WIT:witnessed
|yadar-san uchraas unt-laa
|become.tired-PRF because sleep-WIT.PAST
|'I slept because I was tired'}}

Finally, there is a class of particles, usually clause-initial, that are distinct from conjunctions but that also relate clauses:

{{interlinear|indent=3
|bi olson, kharin chamd ögökhgüi
|I find-PRF but you-DAT give-IPFV-NEG
| 'I've found it, but I won't give it to you'.}}

Mongolian has a [[complementizer]] [[auxiliary verb]] ''ge''- very similar to [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''to iu''. ''ge''- literally means 'to say' and in converbal form ''gej'' precedes either a psych verb or a verb of saying. As a verbal noun like ''gedeg'' (with ''ni'') it can form a subset of complement clauses. As ''gene'' it may function as an [[evidentiality|evidentialis]] marker.<ref>Sečenbaγatur (2003): 152–153.</ref>

Mongolian clauses tend to be combined [[parataxis (grammar)|paratactically]], which sometimes gives rise to sentence structures which are subordinative despite resembling coordinative structures in European languages:<ref>Johanson (1995)</ref>

{{interlinear|indent=3
|ter ir-eed namaig üns-sen
|that.one come-CVB I.ACC kiss-PRF
|'S/he came and kissed me.'}}

In the [[subordinate clause]] the subject, if different from the subject of [[main clause]], sometimes has to take accusative or genitive case.<ref>Mizuno (1995)</ref> There is marginal occurrence of subjects taking ablative case as well.<ref>Pürev-Očir (1997): 131.</ref> Subjects of attributive clauses in which the head has a function (as is the case for all English [[relative clause]]s) usually require that if the subject is not the [[head (linguistics)|head]], then it take the genitive,<ref>Sečenbaγatur (2003): 36.</ref> e.g. ''tüünii idsen hool'' that.one-{{smallcaps|genitive}} eat-{{smallcaps|perfect}} meal 'the meal that s/he had eaten'.