Editing Meat (section)

== Environmental impact ==

{{further|Environmental impacts of animal agriculture}}

A multitude of serious negative environmental effects are associated with meat production. Among these are greenhouse gas emissions, [[fossil energy]] use, water use, water quality changes, and effects on grazed ecosystems. They are so significant that according to [[University of Oxford]] researchers, "a [[Veganism|vegan]] diet is probably the single biggest way to reduce your impact on planet Earth... far bigger than cutting down on your flights or buying an electric car".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Petter |first1=Olivia |title=Veganism is 'single biggest way' to reduce our environmental impact, study finds |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/veganism-environmental-impact-planet-reduced-plant-based-diet-humans-study-a8378631.html |work=The Independent |date=September 24, 2020 |access-date=23 November 2023}}</ref> However, this is often ignored in the public consciousness and in plans to tackle serious environmental issues such as the [[climate crisis]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dalton |first1=Jane |title=World leaders 'reckless for ignoring how meat and dairy accelerate climate crisis' |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/climate-meat-dairy-diet-food-co2-b1951760.html |newspaper=[[The Independent]]  |access-date=23 November 2023}}</ref>

The livestock sector may be the largest source of [[water pollution]] (due to animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides), and it contributes to emergence of antibiotic resistance. It accounts for over 8% of global human water use. It is a significant driver of [[Holocene extinction|biodiversity loss]] and [[ecosystem]]s, as it causes [[deforestation]],<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://ourworldindata.org/drivers-of-deforestation |title=Drivers of Deforestation |last=Ritchie |first=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |date=February 9, 2021 |journal=[[Our World in Data]] |access-date=March 20, 2021 }}</ref> ocean [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Milman |first=Oliver |date=August 1, 2017 |title=Meat industry blamed for largest-ever 'dead zone' in Gulf of Mexico |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/01/meat-industry-dead-zone-gulf-of-mexico-environment-pollution |work=The Guardian |access-date=August 2, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119112425/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/01/meat-industry-dead-zone-gulf-of-mexico-environment-pollution |archive-date=January 19, 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> species extinction,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |title=Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns |first=Virginia |last=Morell |date=August 11, 2015 |work=[[Science (magazine)|Science]] |access-date=January 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220105327/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/08/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2015/oct/20/the-four-horsemen-of-the-sixth-mass-extinction |title=How humans are driving the sixth mass extinction |first=Jeremy |last=Hance |date=October 20, 2015 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=January 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204223902/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2015/oct/20/the-four-horsemen-of-the-sixth-mass-extinction |archive-date=December 4, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[land degradation]], pollution, [[overfishing]] and [[global warming]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Steinfeld |first1=Henning |last2=Gerber |first2=Pierre |last3=Wassenaar |first3=Tom |last4=Castel |first4=Vincent |last5=Rosales |first5=Mauricio |last6=de Haan |first6=Cees |date=2006 |title=Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/climatechange/doc/FAO%20report%20executive%20summary.pdf |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |isbn=978-92-5-105571-7 |page=xxiii |access-date=May 14, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210012108/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/climatechange/doc/FAO%20report%20executive%20summary.pdf |archive-date=December 10, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Machovina 2015 419–431">{{cite journal |first1=B. |last1=Machovina |first2=K.J. |last2=Feeley |first3=W.J. |last3=Ripple |year=2015 |title=Biodiversity conservation: The key is reducing meat consumption |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=536 |pages=419–31 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.022 |pmid=26231772 |bibcode=2015ScTEn.536..419M}}</ref><ref name="10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x">{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Xiaoming |last2=Sharma |first2=Prateek |last3=Shu |first3=Shijie |last4=Lin |first4=Tzu-Shun |last5=Ciais |first5=Philippe |last6=Tubiello |first6=Francesco N. |last7=Smith |first7=Pete |last8=Campbell |first8=Nelson |last9=Jain |first9=Atul K. |display-authors=6 |title=Global greenhouse gas emissions from animal-based foods are twice those of plant-based foods |journal=[[Nature Food]] |date=September 2021 |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=724–732 |doi=10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x |pmid=37117472 |hdl=2164/18207 |s2cid=240562878 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Cattle farming was estimated to be responsible for 80 per cent of Amazon deforestation in 2008 due to the clearing of forests to grow animal feed (especially soya) and cattle ranching.<ref>{{cite web |title=Unsustainable Cattle Ranching |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/amazon/amazon_threats/unsustainable_cattle_ranching/? |website=wwf.org |publisher=World Wildlife Fund |access-date=23 November 2023}}</ref>

Environmental effects vary among livestock production systems.<ref>Steinfeld, H. et al. 2006, Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Livestock, Environment and Development, FAO.</ref> Grazing of livestock can be beneficial for some wildlife species, but not for others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holechek |first1=J. L. |display-authors=etal |year=1982 |title=Manipulation of grazing to improve or maintain wildlife habitat |journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin |volume=10 |pages=204–10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Strassman |first1=B.I. |year=1987 |title=Effects of cattle grazing and haying on wildlife conservation at National Wildlife Refuges in the United States |url =https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/48162/1/267_2005_Article_BF01867177.pdf |journal=Environmental Management |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=35–44 |doi=10.1007/bf01867177 |bibcode=1987EnMan..11...35S |hdl=2027.42/48162 |s2cid=55282106 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Targeted grazing of livestock is used as a food-producing alternative to herbicide use in some vegetation management.<ref>Launchbaugh, K. (ed.) 2006. Targeted Grazing: a natural approach to vegetation management and landscape enhancement. American Sheep Industry. 199 pp.</ref>

=== Land use ===

[[File:Cereals allocated to food, animal feed and fuel, World.png|thumb|Cereal-use statistic showing an estimated large fraction of crops used as animal feed (red) ]]

[[File:Operação Hymenaea, Julho-2016 (29399454651).jpg|thumb |Meat production is a main driver of tropical deforestation, in the Amazon largely [[Beef#Environmental impact|due to beef production]] for [[International trade|export]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rajão |first1=Raoni |last2=Soares-Filho |first2=Britaldo |last3=Nunes |first3=Felipe |last4=Börner |first4=Jan |last5=Machado |first5=Lilian |last6=Assis |first6=Débora |last7=Oliveira |first7=Amanda |last8=Pinto |first8=Luis |last9=Ribeiro |first9=Vivian |last10=Rausch |first10=Lisa |last11=Gibbs |first11=Holly |last12=Figueira |first12=Danilo |display-authors=6 |title=The rotten apples of Brazil's agribusiness |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=July 17, 2020 |volume=369 |issue=6501 |pages=246–248 |doi=10.1126/science.aba6646 |pmid=32675358 |bibcode=2020Sci...369..246R |s2cid=220548355 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Amazon soya and beef exports 'linked to deforestation' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-53438680 |work=BBC News |date=July 17, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=zu Ermgassen |first1=Erasmus K. H. J. |last2=Godar |first2=Javier |last3=Lathuillière |first3=Michael J. |last4=Löfgren |first4=Pernilla |last5=Gardner |first5=Toby |last6=Vasconcelos |first6=André |last7=Meyfroidt |first7=Patrick |title=The origin, supply chain, and deforestation risk of Brazil's beef exports |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=December 15, 2020 |volume=117 |issue=50 |pages=31770–31779 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2003270117 |pmid=33262283 |pmc=7749302 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11731770Z |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=McCoy |first1=Terrence |last2=Ledur |first2=Júlia |title=How Americans' love of beef is helping destroy the Amazon rainforest |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2022/amazon-beef-deforestation-brazil/ |access-date=May 27, 2022 |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>]]

Meat production is by far the biggest user of land, as it accounts for nearly 40% of the global land surface.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/ |title=How to stop the sixth mass extinction |first=John D. |last=Sutter |date=December 12, 2016 |publisher=[[CNN]] |access-date=January 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112083004/http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/ |archive-date=January 12, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Just in the contiguous United States, 34% of its land area ({{convert |654 |e6acre |e6ha |order=flip |abbr=off |disp=or}}) are used as pasture and rangeland, mostly feeding livestock, not counting {{convert |391 |e6acre |e6ha |order=flip |abbr=off}} of cropland (20%), some of which is used for producing feed for livestock.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2018-us-land-use/ |title=Here's How America Uses Its Land |last=Dave Merrill and Lauren Leatherby |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225232852/https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2018-us-land-use/ |archive-date=February 25, 2020}}</ref> Roughly 75% of [[Deforestation|deforested]] land around the globe is used for livestock [[pasture]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nibert |first=David |editor1=Steven Best |editor2=Richard Kahn |editor3=Anthony J. Nocella II |editor4=Peter McLaren |authorlink=David Nibert |editor1-link=Steven Best |editor4-link=Peter McLaren |date=2011 |title=The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination |chapter=Origins and Consequences of the Animal Industrial Complex |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |page=206 |url=https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780739136973/The-Global-Industrial-Complex-Systems-of-Domination |isbn=978-0739136980}}</ref> Deforestation from practices like [[slash-and-burn]] releases {{CO2}} and removes the [[carbon sink]] of grown tropical forest ecosystems which substantially mitigate climate change.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lawrence |first1=Deborah |last2=Coe |first2=Michael |last3=Walker |first3=Wayne |last4=Verchot |first4=Louis |last5=Vandecar |first5=Karen |title=The Unseen Effects of Deforestation: Biophysical Effects on Climate |journal=[[Frontiers in Forests and Global Change]] |year=2022 |volume=5 |doi=10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115 |bibcode=2022FrFGC...5.6115L |doi-access=free }}</ref> Land use is a major pressure on pressure on [[Soil conservation|fertile soils]] which is important for global [[food security]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borrelli |first1=Pasquale |last2=Robinson |first2=David A. |last3=Panagos |first3=Panos |last4=Lugato |first4=Emanuele |last5=Yang |first5=Jae E. |last6=Alewell |first6=Christine |last7=Wuepper |first7=David |last8=Montanarella |first8=Luca |last9=Ballabio |first9=Cristiano |display-authors=6 |title=Land use and climate change impacts on global soil erosion by water (2015–2070) |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=August 20, 2020 |volume=117 |issue=36 |pages=21994–22001 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2001403117 |pmid=32839306 |pmc=7486701 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11721994B |s2cid=221305830 |doi-access=free }}
* News article: {{cite news |title=Climate change and land use are accelerating soil erosion by water |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-08-climate-soil-erosion.html |access-date=September 7, 2020 |work=phys.org}}</ref>

=== Climate change ===

{{See also |Livestock's Long Shadow}}

[[File:Environmental-impact-of-food-by-life-cycle-stage.png|thumb |[[Life-cycle assessment]] of GHG emissions for foods. Beef is the food with the largest carbon footprint, mainly due to [[methane emissions|methane production from cows]].]]

The rising global consumption of [[emission intensity|carbon-intensive]] meat products has "exploded the global carbon footprint of agriculture," according to some top scientists.<ref>{{cite news |last=Weston |first=Phoebe |date=January 13, 2021 |title=Top scientists warn of 'ghastly future of mass extinction' and climate disruption |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/13/top-scientists-warn-of-ghastly-future-of-mass-extinction-and-climate-disruption-aoe |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=January 14, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Corey J. A. |last2=Ehrlich |first2=Paul R. |last3=Beattie |first3=Andrew |last4=Ceballos |first4=Gerardo |last5=Crist |first5=Eileen |last6=Diamond |first6=Joan |last7=Dirzo |first7=Rodolfo |last8=Ehrlich |first8=Anne H. |last9=Harte |first9=John |last10=Harte |first10=Mary Ellen |last11=Pyke |first11=Graham |last12=Raven |first12=Peter H. |last13=Ripple |first13=William J. |last14=Saltré |first14=Frédérik |last15=Turnbull |first15=Christine |last16=Wackernagel |first16=Mathis |last17=Blumstein |first17=Daniel T. |display-authors=6 |year=2021 |title=Underestimating the Challenges of Avoiding a Ghastly Future |journal=Frontiers in Conservation Science |volume=1 |doi=10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Meat production is responsible for some 35% of global emissions of greenhouse gases, and 60% of the greenhouse gases attributable to food production.<ref name="Milman 2021">{{cite news |last1=Milman |first1=Oliver |title=Meat accounts for nearly 60% of all greenhouse gases from food production, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/13/meat-greenhouses-gases-food-production-study |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=13 September 2021 |quote=Source: Xu, et al., 2021, 'Global greenhouse gas emissions from animal-based foods are twice those of plant-based foods'}}</ref>

Some nations show very different impacts to counterparts within the same group, with Brazil and Australia having emissions over 200% higher than the average of their respective income groups, driven by meat consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Behrens |first1=Paul |last2=Jong |first2=Jessica C. Kiefte-de |last3=Bosker |first3=Thijs |last4=Rodrigues |first4=João F.D. |last5=Koning |first5=Arjan de |last6=Tukker |first6=Arnold |date=December 19, 2017 |title=Evaluating the environmental impacts of dietary recommendations |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=114 |issue=51 |pages=13412–17 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1711889114 |pmid=29203655 |pmc=5754780 |bibcode=2017PNAS..11413412B |doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to the ''[[Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production]]'' report produced by [[United Nations Environment Programme]]'s (UNEP) international panel for sustainable resource management, a worldwide transition in the direction of a meat and dairy free diet is indispensable if adverse global climate change were to be prevented.<ref name="TG-20100602">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jun/02/un-report-meat-free-diet |title=UN urges global move to meat and dairy-free diet |last=Carus |first=Felicity |date=June 2, 2010 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=June 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303145344/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jun/02/un-report-meat-free-diet |archive-date=March 3, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> A 2019 report in ''[[The Lancet]]'' recommended that global meat (and sugar) consumption be reduced by 50 percent to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Gibbens |first=Sarah |date=January 16, 2019 |title=Eating meat has 'dire' consequences for the planet, says report |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/commission-report-great-food-transformation-plant-diet-climate-change/ |work=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |access-date=February 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203030847/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/commission-report-great-food-transformation-plant-diet-climate-change/ |archive-date=February 3, 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Meat consumption in Western societies needs to be reduced by up to 90% according to a 2018 study published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Willett |first1=Walter |last2=Rockström |first2=Johan |last3=Tilman |first3=David |last4=Godfray |first4=H. Charles J. |last5=Fanzo |first5=Jess |last6=Loken |first6=Brent |last7=Rayner |first7=Mike |last8=Scarborough |first8=Peter |last9=Zurayk |first9=Rami |date=October 2018 |title=Options for keeping the food system within environmental limits |journal=Nature |volume=562 |issue=7728 |pages=519–525 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0594-0 |pmid=30305731 |bibcode=2018Natur.562..519S |s2cid=52954514 |url=https://publications.pik-potsdam.de/pubman/item/item_22704 }}</ref> The 2019 special report by the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] called for significantly reducing meat consumption, particularly in wealthy countries, in order to mitigate and adapt to climate change.<ref name="10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7">{{cite journal |last=Schiermeier |first=Quirin |date=August 8, 2019 |title=Eat less meat: UN climate change report calls for change to human diet |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02409-7 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=572 |issue=7769 |pages=291–292 |access-date=August 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809164640/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02409-7 |archive-date=August 9, 2019 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7 |pmid=31409926 |bibcode=2019Natur.572..291S |s2cid=199543066 }}</ref>

=== Biodiversity loss ===

Meat consumption is a primary contributor to the [[Holocene extinction|sixth mass extinction]].<ref name="Machovina 2015 419–431"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |title=Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns |first=Virginia |last=Morell |date=August 11, 2015 |work=[[Science (magazine)|Science]] |access-date=December 14, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220105327/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/08/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> A 2017 study by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] found that 60% of global [[biodiversity loss]] is attributable to meat-based diets, in particular from the use of land for feed crops, resulting in large-scale loss of habitats and species.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smithers |first=Rebecca |date=October 5, 2017 |title=Vast animal-feed crops to satisfy our meat needs are destroying planet |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/05/vast-animal-feed-crops-meat-needs-destroying-planet |work=The Guardian |access-date=October 5, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303143952/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/05/vast-animal-feed-crops-meat-needs-destroying-planet |archive-date=March 3, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Livestock make up 60% of the [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%).<ref>{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=May 21, 2018 |title=Humans just 0.01% of all life but have destroyed 83% of wild mammals – study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/21/human-race-just-001-of-all-life-but-has-destroyed-over-80-of-wild-mammals-study |work=The Guardian |access-date=June 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911035201/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/21/human-race-just-001-of-all-life-but-has-destroyed-over-80-of-wild-mammals-study |archive-date=September 11, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1711842115 |pmid=29784790 |pmc=6016768 |title=The biomass distribution on Earth |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=115 |issue=25 |pages=6506–11 |year=2018 |last1=Bar-On |first1=Yinon M. |last2=Phillips |first2=Rob |last3=Milo |first3=Ron |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.6506B |doi-access=free}}</ref> In November 2017, 15,364 world scientists signed a [[World Scientists' Warning to Humanity|Warning to Humanity]] calling for a drastic reduction in per capita consumption of meat and "dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ripple |first1=W.J. |display-authors=etal |title=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice |journal=[[BioScience]] |date=November 13, 2017 |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1026–1028 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix125 |doi-access=free |hdl=11336/71342 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The 2019 ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'' recommended a reduction in meat consumption to mitigate biodiversity loss.<ref>{{cite news |last=Watts |first=Jonathan |date=May 6, 2019 |title=Human society under urgent threat from loss of Earth's natural life |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=May 18, 2019 |quote=Over the past week, representatives from the world's governments have fine-tuned the summary for policymakers, which includes remedial scenarios, such as "transformative change" across all areas of government, revised trade rules, massive investments in forests and other green infrastructure, and changes in individual behaviour such as lower consumption of meat and material goods. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518041123/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report |archive-date=May 18, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> A 2021 [[Chatham House]] report asserted that a shift towards plant-based diets would free up land for the restoration of ecosystems and biodiversity.<ref name="Carrington">{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=February 3, 2021 |title=Plant-based diets crucial to saving global wildlife, says report |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/03/plant-based-diets-crucial-to-saving-global-wildlife-says-report |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=February 5, 2021}}</ref>

Meat consumption is predicted to rise as the human population increases and becomes more affluent; this in turn would increase greenhouse gas emissions and further reduce biodiversity.<!--<ref>{{cite news |last=Devlin |first=Hannah |date=July 19, 2018 |title=Rising global meat consumption 'will devastate environment' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jul/19/rising-global-meat-consumption-will-devastate-environment |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=July 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720104546/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jul/19/rising-global-meat-consumption-will-devastate-environment |archive-date=July 20, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>--><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Godfray |first1=H. Charles J. |last2=Aveyard |first2=Paul |display-authors=etal |year=2018 |title=Meat consumption, health, and the environment |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:cc174e1d-0e3e-43ce-9d3b-ad7e204d0845 |journal=Science |volume=361 |issue=6399 |doi=10.1126/science.aam5324 |pmid=30026199 |bibcode=2018Sci...361M5324G |s2cid=49895246 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Reducing environmental impact ===

The environmental impact of meat production can be reduced on the farm by conversion of human-inedible residues of food crops.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=D.C. |year=1978 |title=Use of cereal residues in beef cattle production systems |journal=J. Anim. Sci. |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=849–61 |doi=10.2527/jas1978.463849x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elferink |first1=E.V. |last2=Nonhebel |first2=S. |last3=Moll |first3=H.C. |year=2008 |title=Feeding livestock food residue and the consequences for the environmental impact of meat |journal=J. Clean. Prod. |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1227–33 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.06.008|bibcode=2008JCPro..16.1227E }}</ref> Manure from meat-producing livestock is used as fertilizer. Substitution of animal manures for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 MJ of fossil fuel energy are used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.<ref>Shapouri, H. et al. 2002. The energy balance of corn ethanol: an update. USDA Agricultural Economic Report 814.</ref>

=== Reducing meat consumption ===

{{Main |Sustainable consumption#Sustainable food consumption}}

The IPCC and others have stated that meat production has to be reduced substantially for any sufficient [[climate change mitigation|mitigation of]] climate change and, at least initially, largely through [[Sustainable consumption#Shifting consumption|shifts]] towards [[plant-based diet]]s where meat consumption is high.<ref name="10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7"/><ref name="10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5">{{cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Zhongxiao |last2=Scherer |first2=Laura |last3=Tukker |first3=Arnold |last4=Spawn-Lee |first4=Seth A. |last5=Bruckner |first5=Martin |last6=Gibbs |first6=Holly K. |last7=Behrens |first7=Paul |title=Dietary change in high-income nations alone can lead to substantial double climate dividend |journal=Nature Food |date=January 2022 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=29–37 |doi=10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5 |pmid=37118487 |s2cid=245867412 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357723207 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340"/> [[Personal carbon trading|Personal carbon allowances]] that [[rationing|allow a certain amount]] of free meat consumption per person would be a form of restriction, [[meat tax]]es would be a type of fiscal mechanism. Meat can be replaced by, for example, high-protein iron-rich low-emission [[legume]]s and common fungi, [[dietary supplement]]s (e.g. of vitamin B<sub>12</sub>) and [[fortified food]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Craig |first1=Winston J. |last2=Mangels |first2=Ann Reed |last3=Fresán |first3=Ujué |last4=Marsh |first4=Kate |last5=Miles |first5=Fayth L. |last6=Saunders |first6=Angela V. |last7=Haddad |first7=Ella H. |last8=Heskey |first8=Celine E. |last9=Johnston |first9=Patricia |last10=Larson-Meyer |first10=Enette |last11=Orlich |first11=Michael |display-authors=6 |title=The Safe and Effective Use of Plant-Based Diets with Guidelines for Health Professionals |journal=Nutrients |date=November 19, 2021 |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=4144 |doi=10.3390/nu13114144 |pmid=34836399 |pmc=8623061 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[cultured meat]], [[Microbial food cultures|microbial foods]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Humpenöder |first1=Florian |last2=Bodirsky |first2=Benjamin Leon |last3=Weindl |first3=Isabelle |last4=Lotze-Campen |first4=Hermann |last5=Linder |first5=Tomas |last6=Popp |first6=Alexander |title=Projected environmental benefits of replacing beef with microbial protein |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=May 2022 |volume=605 |issue=7908 |pages=90–96 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04629-w |pmid=35508780 |bibcode=2022Natur.605...90H |s2cid=248526001 |url=https://publications.pik-potsdam.de/pubman/item/item_27105_5/component/file_27634/27105oa.pdf }}<br/>News article: {{cite news |title=Replacing some meat with microbial protein could help fight climate change |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/meat-microbial-protein-climate-change-deforestation-fungi-algae |access-date=May 27, 2022 |work=Science News |date=May 5, 2022}}</ref> [[mycoprotein]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bhuvaneswari |first1=Meganathan |last2=Sivakumar |first2=Nallusamy |title=Fungi in Sustainable Food Production |chapter=Fungi: A Potential Future Meat Substitute |series=Fungal Biology |year=2021 |pages=181–195 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-64406-2_11 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-64405-5 |s2cid=234315964 }}</ref> [[List of meat substitutes|meat substitutes]], and other alternatives,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Hyun Jung |last2=Yong |first2=Hae In |last3=Kim |first3=Minsu |last4=Choi |first4=Yun-Sang |last5=Jo |first5=Cheorun |title=Status of meat alternatives and their potential role in the future meat market – A review |journal=Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences |date=October 1, 2020 |volume=33 |issue=10 |pages=1533–1543 |doi=10.5713/ajas.20.0419 |pmid=32819080 |pmc=7463075 }}</ref> such as those based on mushrooms,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sirimuangmoon |first1=Chirat |last2=Lee |first2=Soh-Min |last3=Guinard |first3=Jean-Xavier |last4=Myrdal Miller |first4=Amy |date=2016 |title=A Study of Using Mushrooms as a Plant-based Alternative for a Popular Meat-based Dish |url=https://so01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/APST/article/view/62602 |journal=Asia-Pacific Journal of Science and Technology |publisher=[[Khon Kaen University]] |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=156–167 |doi=10.14456/KKURJ.2016.15 |s2cid=113606865}}</ref> legumes (pulses), and other food sources.<ref name="10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058">{{cite journal |last1=Onwezen |first1=M. C. |last2=Bouwman |first2=E. P. |last3=Reinders |first3=M. J. |last4=Dagevos |first4=H. |title=A systematic review on consumer acceptance of alternative proteins: Pulses, algae, insects, plant-based meat alternatives, and cultured meat |journal=Appetite |date=April 1, 2021 |volume=159 |pages=105058 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058 |pmid=33276014 |s2cid=227242500 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Land previously used for meat production can be [[Restoration ecology|rewilded]].<ref name="10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5"/><ref name="10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x"/> The biologists [[Rodolfo Dirzo]], Gerardo Ceballos, and [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] state that it is the "massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed" while respecting the cultural traditions of indigenous peoples, for whom meat is an important source of protein.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dirzo |first1=Rodolfo |last2=Ceballos |first2=Gerardo |last3=Ehrlich |first3=Paul R. |year=2022 |title=Circling the drain: the extinction crisis and the future of humanity |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]] |volume=377 |issue=1857 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2021.0378 |pmid=35757873 |pmc=9237743 |quote=Although among many Indigenous populations, meat consumption represents a cultural tradition and a source of protein, it is the massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed}}</ref>