Editing Jupiter (god) (section)

== Relation to other gods ==
=== Capitoline Triad ===
{{See also|Capitoline Triad}}
[[File:Arte romana, triade capitolina, 160-180 dc (guidonia montecelio, museo civico archeologico) 01.jpg|thumb|Capitoline Triad|alt=Statue of three figures, seated side by side]]
The Capitoline Triad was introduced to Rome by the Tarquins. Dumézil thinks it might have been an Etruscan (or local) creation based on Vitruvius' treatise on architecture, in which the three deities are associated as the most important.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|p=274 ff}} It is possible that the Etruscans paid particular attention to [[Menrva]] (Minerva) as a goddess of destiny, in addition to the royal couple Uni (Juno) and Tinia (Jupiter).<ref>{{harvp|Dumézil|1977|p=271}} citing Ovid ''Fasti'' III, 815–832.</ref> In Rome, Minerva later assumed a military aspect under the influence of [[Athena Pallas]] (Polias). Dumézil argues that with the advent of the Republic, Jupiter became the only king of Rome, no longer merely the first of the great gods.

==== Archaic Triad ====
{{Main|Archaic Triad}}
The Archaic Triad is a hypothetical theological structure (or system) consisting of the gods Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. It was first described by Wissowa,<ref>{{harvp|Wissowa|1912|pages=23, 133–134}}</ref> and the concept was developed further by Dumézil.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1941–1948}}{{sfnp|Dumézil|1970|pp=137–165}} The three-function hypothesis of [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Indo-European society]] advanced by Dumézil holds that in prehistory, society was divided into three classes:
{| class=wikitable
|+ [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil]]'s [[trifunctional hypothesis]] as applied to Roman religion
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
! Function !! Subfunction !! Description !! Example Roman god
|-
! rowspan="3;" style="vertical-align:center;" | 1 !!
| style="vertical-align:top;" | sovereignty
| style="vertical-align:top;" | Jupiter{{sfnp|Dumézil|1970|pp=172, 175}}
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! 1 (a)
| judicial || Jupiter / [[Fides (deity)|Fides]] / [[Dius Fidius]]{{sfnp|Dumézil|1948}}
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! 1 (b)
| religious || [[Veiovis]], [[Janus]];{{sfnp|Dumézil|1948}} [[Fortuna]]
|-
! rowspan="3;" style="vertical-align:center;" | 2 !!
| style="vertical-align:top;" | warriors
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! 2 (a)
| protection || [[Minerva]] ([[Pallas Athena]]), [[Castor and Pollux]], [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], [[Roma (mythology)|Roma]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! 2 (b)
| raids and conquest || [[Bellona (goddess)|Bellona]], [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]],
|-
! rowspan="6;" style="vertical-align:center;" | 3 !!
| style="vertical-align:top;" | production of wealth
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [[Quirinus]], [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturnus]], [[Ops]], [[Penates]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! 3 (a)
| style="vertical-align:top;" | crop farming
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturnus]], [[Dīs Pater]], [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], [[Tellus Mater|Tellus]], [[Quirinus]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! 3 (b)
| animal husbandry || [[Castor and Pollux]], [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]], [[Faunus]], [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]], [[Hercules]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! 3 (c)
| commerce || [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]]; [[Feronia (mythology)|Feronia]], [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]], [[Portunus]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! 3 (d)
| manual crafts || [[Vulcanus]], [[Minerva]] ([[Athena]] [[wikt:polytechnic|Polytechnea]])
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! 3 (e)
| human fertility || [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]], [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]], [[Quirinus]], [[Mater Matuta]], [[Minerva]], [[Bona Dea]] (late add.)
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| colspan="4;" | '''{{sc|Table notes}}''':
* {{small| It is unclear whether [[Minerva]] was a war goddess and / or a craftswoman before her identity was merged with [[Athena]]. }}
* {{small| The list omits most minor deities (e.g. [[Attis]], [[Cupid]], [[Deimos (mythology)|Deimos]], [[Flora (mythology)|Flora]], [[Liber]], [[Phobos (mythology)|Phobos]], [[Pomona (mythology)|Pomona]])<br/> whom the Romans considered agents of higher-ranking gods. }}
* {{small| Several nature gods, such as [[Aurora]], [[Dianna]], [[Feronia (mythology)|Feronia]], [[Luna (goddess)|Luna]], [[Silvanus (mythology)|Silvanus]], [[Sol (Roman mythology)|Sol]], only fit into the system via contrivance<br/> (e.g. [[Feronia (mythology)|Feronia]] as an agricultural god). }}
|}
At least for the three main functions, people in each station in life had their religious counterparts the divine figures of the sovereign god, the warrior god, and the industrius god; there were almost always two separate gods for class&nbsp;1, and sometimes more than one for class&nbsp;3. Over time gods or, groups of gods might be consolidated or split, and it is unclear that there were ever any strict separations of all function.

The sovereign function&nbsp;(1) embodied in Jupiter entailed omnipotence; thence, a domain extended over every aspect of nature and life.{{efn|The colour relating to the sovereign function is white. The war function color is red, and the production / farming function color is black.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1941–1948}}{{sfnp|Dumézil|1948}}{{sfnp|Dumézil|1970|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}}}}

The three functions are interrelated with one another, overlapping to some extent; the sovereign function, although including a part that is essentially religious in nature, is involved in many ways in areas pertaining to the other two. Therefore, Jupiter is the "magic player" in the founding of the Roman state and the fields of war, agricultural plenty, human fertility, and wealth.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1970|pp=172, 175}}

This hypothesis has not found widespread support among scholars.

=== Jupiter and Minerva ===
Apart from being protectress of the arts and craft as Minerva Capta, who was brought from Falerii, Minerva's association to Jupiter and relevance to Roman state religion is mainly linked to the [[Palladium (classical antiquity)|Palladium]], a wooden statue of Athena that could move the eyes and wave the spear. It was stored in the ''penus interior'', inner penus of the ''aedes Vestae'', temple of Vesta and considered the most important among the ''[[pignora imperii]]'', pawns of dominion, empire.<ref>{{harvp|Montanari|1990|pp=73 ff}}, citing Cicero ''Pro Scauro 48: "''pignus nostrae salutis atque imperii''"; Servius ''Ad Aeneidem II 188, 16: "''Illic imperium fore ubi et Palladium''"; Festus s.v. p. 152 L.</ref> In Roman traditional lore it was brought from Troy by Aeneas. Scholars though think it was last taken to Rome in the third or second century BC.<ref>{{harvp|Montanari|1990|pp=73 ff}}, citing M. Sordi "Lavinio, Roma e il Palladio" in ''CISA'' '''8''' 1982 p. 74 ff.; W. Vollgraf "Le Palladium de Rome" in ''BAB'' 1938 pp. 34 ff.</ref>

=== Juno and Fortuna ===
The divine couple received from Greece its matrimonial implications, thence bestowing on [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]] the role of tutelary goddess of marriage (''Iuno Pronuba'').

The couple itself though cannot be reduced to a Greek apport. The association of Juno and Jupiter is of the most ancient Latin theology.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1956|pp=71–78}} [[Praeneste]] offers a glimpse into original Latin mythology: the local goddess [[Fortuna]] is represented as milking two infants, one male and one female, namely Jove (Jupiter) and Juno.<ref>Cicero ''De nat. Deor.'' II 85–86: "Is est locus saeptus religiose propter Iovis pueri, qui lactens cum Iunone in gremio sedens, mamma appetens, castissime colitur a matribus": "This is an enclosed place for religious reasons because of Iupiter child, who is seated on the womb with Juno suckling, directed towards the breast, very chastely worshipped by mothers".</ref> It seems fairly safe to assume that from the earliest times they were identified by their own proper names and since they got them they were never changed through the course of history: they were called Jupiter and Juno. These gods were the most ancient deities of every Latin town. Praeneste preserved divine filiation and infancy as the sovereign god and his paredra Juno have a mother who is the primordial goddess Fortuna Primigenia.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1956|p=96 ff}} Many terracotta statuettes have been discovered which represent a woman with a child: one of them represents exactly the scene described by Cicero of a woman with two children of different sex who touch her breast. Two of the votive inscriptions to Fortuna associate her and Jupiter: " Fortunae Iovi puero..." and "Fortunae Iovis puero..."<ref>CIL XIV 2868 and 2862 (mutile).</ref>

In 1882 though R. Mowat published an inscription in which Fortuna is called ''daughter of Jupiter'', raising new questions and opening new perspectives in the theology of Latin gods.<ref>R. Mowat "Inscription latine sur plaque de bronze acquise à Rome par par M. A. Dutuit" in ''Mem. de la Soc. nat. des Antiquités de France'' 5me Ser. 3 '''43''' 1882 p. 200: CIL XIV 2863: ORCEVIA NUMERI/ NATIONU CRATIA/ FORTUNA DIOVO FILEA/ PRIMOCENIA/ DONOM DEDI. Cited by {{harvp|Dumézil|1996|p=71 ff}}.</ref> Dumézil has elaborated an interpretative theory according to which this ''aporia'' would be an intrinsic, fundamental feature of Indoeuropean deities of the primordial and sovereign level, as it finds a parallel in Vedic religion.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1956|loc=chapt. 3}} The contradiction would put Fortuna both at the origin of time and into its ensuing diachronic process: it is the comparison offered by Vedic deity [[Aditi]], the ''Not-Bound'' or ''Enemy of Bondage'', that shows that there is no question of choosing one of the two apparent options: as the mother of the [[Ādityas|Aditya]] she has the same type of relationship with one of his sons, [[Dakṣa]], the minor sovereign. who represents the ''Creative Energy'', being at the same time his mother and daughter, as is true for the whole group of sovereign gods to which she belongs.<ref>Ṛg-Veda X 72, 4–5; {{harvp|Dumézil|1996|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} and ''Mariages indo-européens'' pp. 311–312: "Of Aditi Daksa was born, and of Daksa Aditi, o Daksa, she who is your daughter".</ref> Moreover, Aditi is thus one of the heirs (along with [[Savitr]]) of the opening god of the Indoiranians, as she is represented with her head on her two sides, with the two faces looking opposite directions.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1956|p=91 n. 3}} The mother of the sovereign gods has thence two solidal but distinct modalities of duplicity, i.e. of having two foreheads and a double position in the genealogy. Angelo Brelich has interpreted this theology as the basic opposition between the primordial absence of order (chaos) and the organisation of the cosmos.<ref>A. Brelich ''Tre variazioni romane sul tema delle origini. I. Roma e Preneste. Una polemica religiosa nell'Italia antica'' Pubbl. dell'Univ. di Roma 1955–1956.</ref>

=== Janus ===
{{Main|Janus}}
The relation of Jupiter to Janus is problematic. Varro defines Jupiter as the god who has ''potestas'' (power) over the forces by which anything happens in the world. Janus, however, has the privilege of being invoked first in rites, since in his power are the beginnings of things (''prima''), the appearance of Jupiter included.<ref>{{harvp|Dumézil|1977|p=101 & 290}}. Discussed at length by Augustine, ''City of God'' VII 9 and 10. Also Ovid ''Fasti'' I, 126.</ref>

=== Saturn ===
{{Main|Saturn (mythology)}}
The [[Latini|Latins]] considered Saturn the predecessor of Jupiter. Saturn reigned in [[Latium]] during a mythical [[Golden Age]] reenacted every year at the festival of [[Saturnalia]]. Saturn also retained primacy in matters of agriculture and money. Unlike the Greek tradition of [[Cronus]] and Zeus, the usurpation of Saturn as king of the gods by Jupiter was not viewed by the Latins as violent or hostile; Saturn continued to be revered in his temple at the foot of the Capitol Hill, which maintained the alternative name ''Saturnius'' into the time of Varro.<ref>D. Briquel "Jupiter, Saturne et le Capitol" in ''Revue de l'histoire des religions'' '''198''' 2. 1981 pp. 131–162; Varro V 42; Vergil ''Aeneis'' VIII 357-8; Dionysius Hal. I 34; Solinus I 12; Festus p. 322 L; Tertullian ''Apologeticum'' 10; Macrobius I 7, 27 and I 10, 4 citing a certain Mallius. See also Macrobius I 7, 3: the annalistic tradition attributed its foundation to king Tullus Hostilius. Studies by E. Gjerstad in ''Mélanges Albert Grenier'' Bruxelles 1962 pp. 757–762; Filippo Coarelli in ''La Parola del Passato'' '''174''' 1977 p. 215 f.</ref>
A. Pasqualini has argued that Saturn was related to ''Iuppiter Latiaris'', the old Jupiter of the Latins, as the original figure of this Jupiter was superseded on the Alban Mount, whereas it preserved its gruesome character in the ceremony held at the sanctuary of the Latiar Hill in Rome which involved a human sacrifice and the aspersion of the statue of the god with the blood of the victim.<ref>A. Pasqualini "Note sull'ubicazione del Latiar" in ''[[Mélanges de l'École française de Rome]]'' '''111''' 1999 2 p[. 784–785 citing M. Malavolta "I ''ludi'' delle ''feriae Latinae'' a Roma" in A. Pasqualini (ed.) ''Alba Longa. Mito storia archeologia. Atti dell'incontro di studio, Roma-Albano laziale 27–29 gennaio 1994'' Roma 1996 pp. 257–273; Eusebius ''De laude Constantini'' 13, 7 = MPG XX col. 1403–1404; J. Rives "Human sacrifice among Pagans and Christians" in ''Journal of Roman Studies'' LXXXV 1995 pp. 65–85; Iustinus ''Apologeticum'' II 12, 4–5; G. Pucci "Saturno: il lato oscuro" in ''Lares'' LVIII 1992 p. 5-7.</ref>

=== Fides ===
{{Main|Fides (mythology)}}
The abstract [[personification]] Fides ("Faith, Trust") was one of the oldest gods associated with Jupiter. As guarantor of public faith, Fides had her temple on the Capitol (near that of Capitoline Jupiter).<ref>{{harvp|Wissowa|1912|pages=100–101}}; {{harvp|Dumézil|1996|p=348}}; Cicero ''De Natura Deorum'' II 61.</ref>

=== Dius Fidius ===
{{Main|Dius Fidius}}
''Dius Fidius'' is considered a [[theonym]] for Jupiter,{{sfnp|Dumézil|1974|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}}{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|p=189}} and sometimes a separate entity also known in Rome as [[Sancus|Semo Sancus]] Dius Fidius. Wissowa argued that while Jupiter is the god of the ''Fides Publica Populi Romani'' as ''Iuppiter Lapis'' (by whom important oaths are sworn), Dius Fidius is a deity established for everyday use and was charged with the protection of good faith in private affairs. Dius Fidius would thus correspond to ''Zeus Pistios''.{{sfnp|Wissowa|1912|page=103}} The association with Jupiter may be a matter of divine relation; some scholars see him as a form of Hercules.<ref>Roger D. Woodard ''Vedic and Indo-European Sacred Space'' Chicago Illinois Un. Press 2005 p. 189. The scholar thinks Dius Fidius is the Roman equivalent of Trita Apya, the companion of Indra in the slaying of Vrtra.</ref> Both Jupiter and Dius Fidius were wardens of oaths and wielders of lightning bolts; both required an opening in the roof of their temples.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|p=169}}

The functionality of Sancus occurs consistently within the sphere of ''fides'', oaths and respect for contracts and of the divine-sanction guarantee against their breach. Wissowa suggested that Semo Sancus is the ''[[Genius (mythology)|genius]]'' of Jupiter,<ref name="Roschers Lexicon' 1912, p. 131">G. Wissowa in ''Roschers Lexicon'' 1909 s.v. Semo Sancus col. 3654; {{harvp|Wissowa|1912|page=131 f}}.</ref> but the concept of a deity's ''genius'' is a development of the Imperial period.{{sfnp|Fowler|1899|p=139}}

Some aspects of the oath-ritual for Dius Fidius (such as proceedings under the open sky or in the ''compluvium'' of private residences), and the fact the temple of Sancus had no roof, suggest that the oath sworn by Dius Fidius predated that for ''Iuppiter Lapis'' or ''Iuppiter Feretrius''.<ref>O. Sacchi "Il trivaso del Quirinale" in ''Revue internationale de droit de l'Antiquité'' 2001 pp. 309–311, citing Nonius Marcellus s.v. rituis (L p. 494): ''Itaque domi rituis nostri, qui per dium Fidium iurare vult, prodire solet in compluvium.'', 'thus according to our rites he who wishes to swear an oath by Dius Fidius he as a rule walks to the ''compluvium'' (an unroofed space within the house)'; Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' III 11, 5 on the use of the private ''mensa'' as an altar mentioned in the ''ius Papirianum''; Granius Flaccus ''indigitamenta'' 8 (H. 109) on king Numa's vow by which he asked for the divine punishment of perjury by all the gods.</ref>

=== Genius ===
{{Main|Genius (mythology)}}

Augustine quotes Varro who explains the ''genius'' as "the god who is in charge and has the power to generate everything" and "the rational spirit of all (therefore, everyone has their own)". Augustine concludes that Jupiter should be considered the ''genius'' of the universe.<ref>Augustine ''De Civitate Dei'' VII 13, referencing also [[Quintus Valerius Soranus]]; H. Wagenvoort "''Genius a genendo''" ''Mnemosyne'' 4. Suppl., 4, 1951, pp. 163–168; {{harvp|Dumézil|1977|p=315}}, discussing G. Wissowa's and K. Latte's opinions.</ref>

G. Wissowa advanced the hypothesis that Semo [[Sancus]] is the genius of Jupiter.<ref name="Roschers Lexicon' 1912, p. 131" /> W. W. Fowler has cautioned that this interpretation looks to be an anachronism and it would only be acceptable to say that Sancus is a ''Genius Iovius'', as it appears from the Iguvine Tables.{{sfnp|Fowler|1899|p=189}}

Censorinus cites [[Granius Flaccus]] as saying that "the Genius was the same entity as the Lar" in his lost work ''De Indigitamentis''.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|p=318}}<ref>Censorinus ''De Die Natali'' 3, 1.</ref> probably referring to the ''[[Lar Familiaris]]''. [[Mutunus Tutunus]] had his shrine at the foot of the Velian Hill near those of the Di Penates and of Vica Pota, who were among the most ancient gods of the Roman community, according to Wissowa.{{sfnp|Wissowa|1912|page=243}}

Dumézil opines that the attribution of a Genius to the gods should be earlier than its first attestation of 58 BC, in an inscription which mentions the ''Iovis Genius''.<ref>CIL IX 3513 from the ''lex templi'' of the temple of ''Iuppiter Liber '' at Furfo, Samnium.</ref>

A connection between Genius and Jupiter seems apparent in [[Plautus]]' comedy ''[[Amphitryon]]'', in which Jupiter takes up the appearance of [[Alcmene|Alcmena]]'s husband in order to seduce her: J. Hubeaux sees there a reflection of the story that [[Scipio Africanus]]' mother conceived him with a snake that was in fact Jupiter transformed.<ref>Aulus Gellius ''Noctes Atticae'' VI 1, 6. Silius Italicus ''Punica'' XIII 400–413. Cited by {{harvp|Dumézil|1977|p=435}}, referencing J. Hubeaux ''Les grands mythes de Rome'' Paris 1945 pp. 81–82 and J. Aymard "Scipion l' Africain et les chiens du Capitol" in ''Revue d'études latins'' '''31''' 1953 pp. 111–116.</ref> Scipio himself claimed that only he would rise to the mansion of the gods through the widest gate.<ref>Cicero ''De Republica'' VI 13: = ''[[Somnium Scipionis]]''.</ref>

Among the Etruscan ''Penates'' there is a ''Genius Iovialis'' who comes after ''Fortuna'' and ''Ceres'' and before ''Pales''.<ref>Arnobius ''Adversus Nationes'' IV 40, 2.</ref> Genius Iovialis is one of the ''Penates'' of the humans and not of Jupiter though, as these were located in region I of Martianus Capella's division of Heaven, while Genius appears in regions V and VI along with Ceres, Favor (possibly a Roman approximation to an Etruscan male manifestation of Fortuna) and Pales.<ref>G. Capdeville "Les dieux de Martianus Capella" in ''Revue de l'histoire des religions'' '''213''' 1996 3. p. 285.</ref> This is in accord with the definition of the Penates of man being Fortuna, Ceres, Pales and Genius Iovialis and the statement in Macrobius that the Larentalia were dedicated to Jupiter as the god whence the souls of men come from and to whom they return after death.<ref>Macrobius I 10, 16.</ref>

=== Summanus ===
{{Main|Summanus}}
The god of nighttime lightning has been interpreted as an aspect of Jupiter, either a [[chthonic]] manifestation of the god or a separate god of the underworld. A statue of Summanus stood on the roof of the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, and ''Iuppiter Summanus'' is one of the epithets of Jupiter.<ref>E. and A. L. Prosdocimi in ''Etrennes M. Lejeune'' Paris 1978 pp. 199–207 identify him as an aspect of Jupiter. See also A. L. Prosdocimi "'Etimologie di teonimi: Venilia, Summano, Vacuna" in ''Studi linguistici in onore di Vittore Pisani '' Milano 1969 pp. 777–802.</ref> Dumézil sees the opposition Dius Fidius versus Summanus as complementary, interpreting it as typical to the inherent ambiguity of the sovereign god exemplified by that of Mitra and Varuna in Vedic religion.<ref>{{harvp|Dumézil|1977|pp=184–185}} citing his ''Mitra Varuna, essai sur deux représentations indo-européennes de la souveraineté'' Paris 1940–1948.</ref> The complementarity of the epithets is shown in inscriptions found on ''puteal''s or ''bidental''s reciting either ''fulgur Dium conditum''<ref>{{harvp|Wissowa|1912|page=107}}, citing CIL VI 205; X 49 and 6423.</ref> or ''fulgur Summanum conditum'' in places struck by daytime versus nighttime lightning bolts respectively.<ref>{{harvp|Wissowa|1912}}, CIL VI 206.</ref> This is also consistent with the etymology of ''Summanus'', deriving from ''sub'' and ''mane'' (the time before morning).{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|p=185}}

=== Liber ===
{{See also|Liber}}
''Iuppiter'' was associated with [[Liber]] through his epithet of ''Liber'' (association not yet been fully explained by scholars, due to the scarcity of early documentation).
In the past, it was maintained that Liber was only a progressively-detached [[wikt:hypostasis|hypostasis]] of Jupiter; consequently, the vintage festivals were to be attributed only to ''Iuppiter Liber''.<ref>Ludwig Preller ''Rõmische Mythologie'' I Berlin 1881 pp. 195–197; E. Aust s. v. Iuppiter (Liber) in ''Roscher lexicon'' II column 661 f.</ref> Such a hypothesis was rejected as groundless by Wissowa, although he was a supporter of Liber's Jovian origin.<ref>{{harvp|de Cazanove|1988|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} cites {{harvp|Wissowa|1912|page=120}} and A. Schnegelsberg ''De Liberi apud Romanos cultu capita duo'' Dissertation Marburg 1895 p. 40.</ref> Olivier de Cazanove contends that it is difficult to admit that Liber (who is present in the oldest calendars—those of Numa—in the ''Liberalia'' and in the month of ''Liber'' at Lavinium<ref name="CDVII21">Augustine ''De Civitate Dei'' VII 21.</ref>) was derived from another deity.{{sfnp|de Cazanove|1988|p=247 n. 4}} Such a derivation would find support only in epigraphic documents, primarily from the Osco-Sabellic area.<ref>Inscriptions from the territory of the Frentani (Zvetaieff ''Sylloge inscriptionum Oscarum'' nr. 3); Vestini (CIL IX 3513; I 2nd 756 Furfo); Sabini (Jordan ''Analecta epigraphica latina'' p. 3 f.= CIL I 2nd 1838) and Campani (CIL X 3786 ''Iovi Liber(o)'' Capua).</ref> Wissowa sets the position of ''Iuppiter Liber'' within the framework of an agrarian Jupiter. The god also had a temple in this name on the Aventine in Rome, which was restored by Augustus and dedicated on 1 September. Here, the god was sometimes named ''Liber''<ref>Fasti Arvales ad 1. September.</ref> and sometimes ''Libertas''.<ref>Monumentum Ancyranum IV 7; CIL XI 657 Faventia; XIV 2579 Tusculum.</ref> Wissowa opines that the relationship existed in the concept of creative abundance through which the supposedly-separate Liber might have been connected{{sfnp|Wissowa|1912|page=106}} to the Greek god [[Dionysos]], although both deities might not have been originally related to [[viticulture]].

Other scholars assert that there was no Liber (other than a god of wine) within historical memory.<ref>{{harvp|de Cazanove|1988|p=248}} cites Fr. Bömer ''Untersuchungen über die Religion der Sklaven in Griechenland und Rom'' I Wiesbaden 1957 p. 127 f.</ref> Olivier de Cazanove argues that the domain of the sovereign god Jupiter was that of sacred, sacrificial wine (''vinum inferium''<ref>[[Trebatius Testa]] apud Arnobius ''Ad nationes'' VII 31: "''solum quod inferetur sacrum...''" "only that which is spilt is considered sacred..."; also Cato ''De Agri Cultura'' CXXXII 2; CXXXIV 3; Servius IX 641; Isidore XX 2,7.</ref>),{{sfnp|de Cazanove|1988|p=248 ff}} while that of Liber and Libera was confined to secular wine (''vinum spurcum'');<ref>[[Marcus Antistius Labeo]] apud Festus s. v., p. 474 L.</ref> these two types were obtained through differing fermentation processes. The offer of wine to Liber was made possible by naming the ''mustum'' (grape juice) stored in [[amphora]]s ''sacrima''.<ref>Fr. Altheim ''Terra Mater'' Giessen 1931 p. 22 and n. 4 while acknowledging the obscurity of the etymology of this word proposed the derivation from ''sacerrima'' as ''bruma'' from ''brevissima''; ''Onomata Latina et Graeca'' s.v.: ''novum vinum''; ''Corpus Glossatorum Latinorum'' II p. 264: απαρχη γλεύκους.</ref>

Sacred wine was obtained by the natural fermentation of juice of grapes free from flaws of any type, religious (e. g. those struck by lightning, brought into contact with corpses or wounded people or coming from an unfertilised grapeyard) or secular (by "cutting" it with old wine). Secular (or "profane") wine was obtained through several types of manipulation (e.g. by adding honey, or ''mulsum''; using raisins, or ''passum''; by boiling, or ''defrutum''). However, the ''sacrima'' used for the offering to the two gods for the preservation of grapeyards, vessels and wine<ref>Columella ''De Re Rustica'' XII 18, 4 mentions a sacrifice to Liber and Libera immediately before.</ref> was obtained only by pouring the juice into amphors after pressing.<ref>Paulus s. v. sacrima p. 423 L; Festus p. 422 L (mutile).</ref> The ''mustum'' was considered ''spurcum'' (dirty), and thus unusable in sacrifices.<ref>Isidore ''Origines'' XX 3, 4; Enrico Monatanari "Funzione della sovranitá e feste del vino nella Roma repubblicana" in ''Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni'' '''49''' 1983 pp. 242–262.</ref> The amphor (itself not an item of sacrifice) permitted presentation of its content on a table or could be added to a sacrifice; this happened at the ''auspicatio vindamiae'' for the first grape<ref>G. Dumézil "Quaestiunculae indo-italicae" 14–16 in ''Revue d' études latins'' XXXIX 1961 pp. 261–274.</ref> and for ears of corn of the ''praemetium'' on a dish (''lanx'') at the temple of [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]].<ref>Henri Le Bonniec ''Le culte de Cérès à Rome'' Paris 1958 pp. 160–162.</ref>

Dumézil, on the other hand, sees the relationship between Jupiter and Liber as grounded in the social and political relevance of the two gods (who were both considered patrons of freedom).{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|pp=331–332}} The ''Liberalia'' of March were, since earliest times, the occasion for the ceremony of the donning of the ''toga virilis'' or ''libera'' (which marked the passage into adult citizenship by young people). Augustine relates that these festivals had a particularly obscene character: a ''phallus'' was taken to the fields on a cart, and then back in triumph to town. In [[Lavinium]] they lasted a month, during which the population enjoyed bawdy jokes. The most honest ''matronae'' were supposed to publicly crown the ''phallus'' with flowers, to ensure a good harvest and repeal the ''fascinatio'' (evil eye).<ref name="CDVII21" /> In Rome representations of the sex organs were placed in the temple of the couple ''Liber Libera'', who presided over the male and female components of generation and the "liberation" of the semen.<ref>Augustine ''De Civitate Dei'' VII 3, 1.</ref> This complex of rites and beliefs shows that the divine couple's jurisdiction extended over fertility in general, not only that of grapes. The etymology of ''Liber'' (archaic form ''Loifer, Loifir'') was explained by Émile Benveniste as formed on the IE theme *leudh- plus the suffix -es-; its original meaning is "the one of germination, he who ensures the sprouting of crops".<ref>"Liber et liberi" in ''Revue d'études latins'' '''14''' 1936 pp. 52–58.</ref>

The relationship of Jupiter with freedom was a common belief among the Roman people, as demonstrated by the dedication of the ''Mons Sacer'' to the god after the first secession of the ''plebs''. Later inscriptions also show the unabated popular belief in Jupiter as bestower of freedom in the imperial era.<ref>"''...curatores Iovi Libertati''" CIL XI 657 and "''Iovi Obsequenti publice''" CIL XI 658 from [[Bagnacavallo]]; "''Iuppiter Impetrabilis''" from Cremella sopra [[Monza]] published by G. Zecchini in ''Rivista di studi italiani e latini'' '''110''' 1976 pp. 178–182. The double presence of Jupiter and [[Feronia (goddess)|Feronia]] at Bagnacavallo has led to speculation that the servile ''[[manumissio]]'' (legal ritual action by which slaves were freed) was practised in this sanctuary : Giancarlo Susini "San Pietro in Sylvis, santuario pagense e villaggio plebano nel Ravennate" in ''Mélanges offertes à G. Sanders'' Steenbrugge 1991 pp. 395–400. Cited in F. Cenerini above p. 103.</ref>

=== Veiove ===
{{Main|Vejovis}}
Scholars have been often puzzled by Ve(d)iove (or [[Veiovis]], or Vedius) and unwilling to discuss his identity, claiming our knowledge of this god is insufficient.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|p=188 n. 44}}{{sfnp|Fowler|1899|pp=121–122}}<ref>Kurt Latte ''Römische Religionsgeschichte'' Munich 1960 p. 81 and n. 3.</ref> Most, however, agree that Veiove is a sort of special Jupiter or anti-Iove, or even an underworld Jupiter. In other words, Veiove is indeed the Capitoline god himself, who takes up a different, diminished appearance (''iuvenis'' and ''parvus'', young and gracile), in order to be able to discharge sovereign functions over places, times and spheres that by their own nature are excluded from the direct control of Jupiter as Optimus Maximus.<ref>G. Piccaluga "L' anti-Iupiter" in ''Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni'' XXXIV 1963 p. 229-236; E. Gierstad "Veiovis, a pre-indoeuropean God in Rome?" in ''Opuscola Romana'' 9, 4 1973 pp. 35–42.</ref> This conclusion is based on information provided by Gellius,<ref>Aulus Gellius V 12.</ref> who states his name is formed by adding prefix ''ve'' (here denoting "deprivation" or "negation") to ''Iove '' (whose name Gellius posits as rooted in the verb ''iuvo'' "I benefit"). D. Sabbatucci has stressed the feature of bearer of instability and antithesis to cosmic order of the god, who threatens the kingly power of Jupiter as ''Stator'' and ''Centumpeda'' and whose presence occurs side by side to Janus' on 1 January, but also his function of helper to the growth of the young Jupiter.<ref>{{harvp|Sabbatucci|1988}}, as summarized by {{harvp|Turcan|1989|pp=70, 72–73}}. On the aspect of making Jupiter grow up, Turcan cites the denarii struck by [[Manius Fonteius]] and [[Valerian the younger]] of the type ''Iovi crescenti'' mentioned by A. Alföldi in ''Studien zur Geschichte der Weltkrisedes 3. Jhd. n.Chr.'' Darmstadt 1067 p. 112 f.</ref> In 1858 [[Ludwig Preller]] suggested that Veiovis may be the sinister double of Jupiter.<ref>Ludwig Preller ''Römische Mythologie'' I p. 262 f.</ref>

The god (under the name ''Vetis'') is placed in the last case (number 16) of the outer rim of the Piacenza Liver—before ''Cilens'' (Nocturnus), who ends (or begins in the Etruscan vision) the disposition of the gods. In [[Martianus Capella]]'s division of heaven, he is found in region XV with the ''dii publici''; as such, he numbers among the infernal (or antipodal) gods. The location of his two temples in Rome—near those of Jupiter (one on the Capitoline Hill, in the low between the ''arx'' and the Capitolium, between the two groves where the [[asylum (antiquity)|asylum]] founded by Romulus stood, the other on the Tiber Island near that of ''Iuppiter Iurarius'', later also known as temple of Aesculapius)<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' I, 291–294.</ref>—may be significant in this respect, along with the fact that he is considered the father of Apollo, perhaps because he was depicted carrying arrows.<ref>Ferruccio Bernini ''Ovidio. I Fasti'' (translation and commentary), III 429; Bologna 1983 (reprint).</ref> He is also considered to be the unbearded Jupiter.<ref>Vitruvius ''De Architectura'' IV 8, 4.</ref> The dates of his festivals support the same conclusion: they fall on 1 January,<ref>Ovid ''Fasti''. Fasti Praenestini CIL I 2nd p. 231: ''Aescu]lapio Vediovi in insula''.</ref> 7 March<ref>Fasti Praen.: ''Non. Mart. F(as)...]ovi artis Vediovis inter duos lucos''; Ovid ''Fasti'' III, 429–430.</ref> and 21 May,<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' V, 721–722. ''XII Kal. Iun. NP Agonia'' (Esq. Caer. Ven. Maff.); ''Vediovi'' (Ven.).</ref> the first date being the recurrence of the [[Agonalia]], dedicated to Janus and celebrated by the king with the sacrifice of a ram. The nature of the sacrifice is debated; Gellius states ''capra'', a female goat, although some scholars posit a ram. This sacrifice occurred ''rito humano'', which may mean "with the rite appropriate for human sacrifice".<ref>Wissowa on the grounds of Paulus's glossa ''humanum sacrificium'' p. 91 L interprets "with a rite proper to a ceremony in honour of the deceased". G. Piccaluga at n. 15 and 21 pp. 231–232 though remarks that Gellius does not state ''sacrificium humanum'' but only states...''immolaturque ritu humano capra''.</ref> Gellius concludes by stating that this god is one of those who receive sacrifices so as to persuade them to refrain from causing harm.

The arrow is an ambivalent symbol; it was used in the ritual of the [[devotio]] (the general who vowed had to stand on an arrow).<ref>Livy VIII 9, 6.</ref> It is perhaps because of the arrow and of the juvenile looks that Gellius identifies Veiove with Apollo<ref>Gellius V 12, 12.</ref> and as a god who must receive worship in order to obtain his abstention from harming men, along with [[Robigus]] and [[Averruncus]].<ref>Gellius V 12. The Romans knew and offered a cult to other such deities: among them ''Febris'', ''Tussis'', ''Mefitis''.</ref> The ambivalence in the identity of Veiove is apparent in the fact that while he is present in places and times which may have a negative connotation (such as the ''asylum'' of Romulus in between the two groves on the Capitol, the Tiberine island along with Faunus and Aesculapius, the kalends of January, the nones of March, and 21 May, a statue of his nonetheless stands in the ''arx''. Moreover, the initial particle ''ve-'' which the ancient supposed were part of his name is itself ambivalent as it may have both an accrescitive and diminutive value.<ref>G. Piccaluga "L' anti-Juppiter" in ''Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni'' XXXIV 1963 p. 233-234 and notes 30, 31 citing Gellius V 12 and Pliny the Elder ''Naturalis Historia'' XVI 216: "''Non et simulacrum Veiovis in arce?''".</ref>

Maurice Besnier has remarked that a temple to ''Iuppiter'' was dedicated by ''praetor'' Lucius Furius Purpureo before the [[Battle of Cremona (200 BC)|battle of Cremona]] against the [[Cenomani (Cisalpine Gaul)|Celtic Cenomani of Cisalpine Gaul]].<ref>Livy XXXI 21.</ref> An inscription found at [[Brescia]] in 1888 shows that ''Iuppiter Iurarius'' was worshipped there<ref>Ettore Pais CIL ''Supplementa Italica'' I ''addimenta al CIL V'' in ''Atti dei Lincei, Memorie'' V 1888 n. 1272: ''I O M IUR D(e) C(onscriptorum) S(ententia)''.</ref> and one found on the south tip of Tiber Island in 1854 that there was a cult to the god on the spot too.<ref>CIL I 1105: ''C. Volcaci C. F Har. de stipe Iovi Iurario... onimentum''.</ref> Besnier speculates that Lucius Furius had evoked the chief god of the enemy and built a temple to him in Rome outside the ''pomerium''. On 1 January, the ''Fasti Praenestini'' record the festivals of Aesculapius and Vediove on the Island, while in the ''Fasti'' Ovid speaks of ''Jupiter'' and his grandson.<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' I, 291–295.</ref> Livy records that in 192 BC, ''duumvir'' Q. Marcus Ralla dedicated to Jupiter on the Capitol the two temples promised by L. Furius Purpureo, one of which was that promised during the war against the Gauls.<ref>Livy XXXV 41.</ref> Besnier would accept a correction to Livy's passage (proposed by Jordan) to read ''aedes Veiovi'' instead of ''aedes duae Iovi''. Such a correction concerns the temples dedicated on the Capitol: it does not address the question of the dedication of the temple on the Island, which is puzzling, since the place is attested epigraphically as dedicated to the cult of ''Iuppiter Iurarius'', in the ''Fasti Praenestini'' of ''Vediove''<ref>Cfr. above: "''Aeculapio Vediovi in insula''".</ref> and to Jupiter according to Ovid. The two gods may have been seen as equivalent: ''Iuppiter Iurarius'' is an awesome and vengeful god, parallel to the Greek ''Zeus Orkios'', the avenger of perjury.<ref>Maurice Besnier "Jupiter Jurarius" in ''Mélanges d'archéologie et d' histoire'' '''18''' 1898 pp. 287–289.</ref>

A. Pasqualini has argued that Veiovis seems related to ''Iuppiter Latiaris'', as the original figure of this Jupiter would have been superseded on the Alban Mount, whereas it preserved its gruesome character in the ceremony held on the sanctuary of the Latiar Hill, the southernmost hilltop of the [[Quirinal]] in Rome, which involved a human sacrifice. The [[gens Iulia]] had gentilician cults at [[Bovillae]] where a dedicatory inscription to Vediove has been found in 1826 on an ara.<ref>CIL XIV 2387 = ILS 2988 = ILLRP 270=CIL I 807: ''Vediovei patrei genteiles Iuliei leege Albana dicata''.</ref> According to Pasqualini it was a deity similar to Vediove, wielder of lightning bolts and chthonic, who was connected to the cult of the founders who first inhabited the Alban Mount and built the sanctuary. Such a cult once superseded on the Mount would have been taken up and preserved by the Iulii, private citizens bound to the ''sacra Albana'' by their Alban origin.<ref>A. Pasqualini "Le basi documenatarie della ''leggenda'' di Alba Longa" Universita' di Roma Torvergata 2012 online.</ref>

=== Victoria ===
{{See also|Victoria (mythology)}}
[[File:RSC 0009.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Coin with [[Laurel wreath|laureate]] head of Jupiter ([[Obverse and reverse|obverse]]) and (reverse) Victory, standing ("''ROMA''" below in [[relief]])|alt=Roman coin, with bearded head on front and standing figure on reverse]]
Victoria was connected to ''Iuppiter Victor'' in his role as bestower of military victory. Jupiter, as a sovereign god, was considered as having the power to conquer anyone and anything in a supernatural way; his contribution to military victory was different from that of [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] (god of military valour). Victoria appears first on the reverse of coins representing Venus (driving the quadriga of Jupiter, with her head crowned and with a palm in her hand) during the first Punic War. Sometimes, she is represented walking and carrying a trophy.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|p=408}}

A temple was dedicated to the goddess afterwards on the Palatine, testifying to her high station in the Roman mind. When [[Hieron of Syracuse]] presented a golden statuette of the goddess to Rome, the Senate had it placed in the temple of Capitoline Jupiter among the greatest (and most sacred) deities.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|p=413}}<ref>Livy XXVII 2, 10–12.</ref>

Although Victoria played a significant role in the religious ideology of the late Republic and the Empire, she is undocumented in earlier times. A function similar to hers may have been played by the little-known [[Vica Pota]].{{cn|date=September 2023}}

=== Terminus ===
{{See also|Terminus (god)}}
Juventas and Terminus were the gods who, according to legend,<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus ''Rom. Antiquities'' III 69, 5–6.</ref> refused to leave their sites on the Capitol when the construction of the temple of Jupiter was undertaken. Therefore, they had to be reserved a ''sacellum'' within the new temple. Their stubbornness was considered a good omen; it would guarantee youth, stability and safety to Rome on its site.<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus above III 69; Florus I 7, 9.</ref> This legend is generally thought by scholars to indicate their strict connection with Jupiter. An inscription found near [[Ravenna]] reads ''Iuppiter Ter.'',<ref>CIL XI 351.</ref> indicating that Terminus is an aspect of Jupiter.

Terminus is the god of boundaries (public and private), as he is portrayed in literature. The religious value of the [[boundary marker]] is documented by Plutarch,<ref>Plutarch ''Numa'' 16.</ref> who ascribes to king Numa the construction of temples to Fides and Terminus and the delimitation of Roman territory. Ovid gives a vivid description of the rural rite at a boundary of fields of neighbouring peasants on 23 February (the day of the [[Terminus (mythology)#Worship|Terminalia]].<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' II, 679.</ref> On that day, Roman pontiffs and magistrates held a ceremony at the sixth mile of the [[Via Laurentina]] (ancient border of the Roman ''ager'', which maintained a religious value). This festival, however, marked the end of the year and was linked to time more directly than to space (as attested by Augustine's [[Apologetics|apologia]] on the role of Janus with respect to endings).<ref>Augustine ''De Civitate Dei'' VII 7.</ref> Dario Sabbatucci has emphasised the temporal affiliation of Terminus, a reminder of which is found in the rite of the ''regifugium''.{{sfnp|Sabbatucci|1988|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} Dumézil, on the other hand, views the function of this god as associated with the legalistic aspect of the sovereign function of Jupiter. Terminus would be the counterpart of the minor Vedic god Bagha, who oversees the just and fair division of goods among citizens.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|pp=186–187}}

=== Iuventas ===
{{See also|Iuventas}}

Along with ''Terminus'', '' Iuventas'' (also known as ''Iuventus'' and ''Iuunta'') represents an aspect of Jupiter (as the legend of her refusal to leave the Capitol Hill demonstrates. Her name has the same root as [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]] (from ''Iuu-'', "young, youngster"); the ceremonial litter bearing the sacred goose of Juno Moneta stopped before her ''sacellum'' on the festival of the goddess. Later, she was identified with the Greek [[Hebe (mythology)|Hebe]]. The fact that Jupiter is related to the concept of youth is shown by his epithets ''Puer'', ''Iuuentus'' and ''Ioviste'' (interpreted as "the youngest" by some scholars).{{sfnp|Wissowa|1912|page=135}}{{sfnp|Dumézil|1974|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}}{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|pp=185–186}}<ref>C. W. Atkins "Latin 'Iouiste' et le vocabulaire religieux indoeuropéen" in ''Mélanges Benveniste'' Paris, 1975, pp. 527–535.</ref> Dumézil noted the presence of the two minor sovereign deities Bagha and [[Aryaman]] beside the Vedic sovereign gods Varuna and Mitra (though more closely associated with Mitra); the couple would be reflected in Rome by ''Terminus'' and ''Iuventas''. Aryaman is the god of young soldiers. The function of ''Iuventas'' is to protect the ''iuvenes'' (the ''novi togati'' of the year, who are required to offer a sacrifice to Jupiter on the Capitol)<ref>{{harvp|Wissowa|1912|page=135}}, citing Servius Danielis ''Eclogae'' IV 50.</ref> and the Roman soldiers (a function later attributed to Juno). King Servius Tullius, in reforming the Roman social organisation, required that every adolescent offer a coin to the goddess of youth upon entering adulthood.<ref>Piso apud Dionysius of Halicarnassus ''Rom. Antiquities'' IV 15, 5.</ref>

In Dumézil's analysis, the function of ''Iuventas'' (the personification of youth), was to control the entrance of young men into society and protect them until they reach the age of ''iuvenes'' or ''iuniores'' (i.e. of serving the state as soldiers).{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|pp=185–186}}

A temple to ''Iuventas'' was promised in 207 BC by consul [[Marcus Livius Salinator]] and dedicated in 191 BC.<ref>Livy XXXV 36, 5.</ref>

=== Penates ===
{{See also|Penates}}
The Romans considered the Penates as the gods to whom they owed their own existence.<ref>Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' III 4, 8–9 citing Varro: "Per quos penitus spiramus". Sabine Mac Cormack ''The Shadows of Poetry: Vergil in the Mind of Augustine'' University of California Press 1998 p. 77.</ref> As noted by Wissowa ''Penates'' is an adjective, meaning "those of or from the ''penus''" the innermost part, most hidden recess;{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|pp=311–312}} Dumézil though refuses Wissowa's interpretation of ''penus'' as the storeroom of a household. As a nation the Romans honoured the ''Penates publici'': Dionysius calls them ''Trojan gods'' as they were absorbed into the Trojan legend. They had a temple in Rome at the foot of the [[Velian Hill]], near the Palatine, in which they were represented as a couple of male youth. They were honoured every year by the new consuls before entering office at [[Lavinium]],<ref>Varro ''De Lingua Latina'' V 144; Plutarch ''Coriolanus'' XXIX 2; Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' III 4, 11; Servius ''Ad Aeneidem'' II 296: as cited by {{harvp|Dumézil|1977|p=313}}.</ref> because the Romans believed the Penates of that town were identical to their own.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|p=313}}

The concept of ''di Penates'' is more defined in Etruria: [[Arnobius]] (citing a Caesius) states that the Etruscan Penates were named Fortuna, Ceres, Genius Iovialis and Pales; according to [[Nigidius Figulus]], they included those of Jupiter, of Neptune, of the infernal gods and of mortal men.<ref>Arnobius ''Adversus nationes'' III 40. Cf. also Lucan ''Pharsalia'' V 696; VII 705; VIII 21.</ref> According to Varro the Penates reside in the recesses of Heaven and are called ''Consentes'' and ''Complices'' by the Etruscans because they rise and set together, are twelve in number and their names are unknown, six male and six females and are the cousellors and masters of Jupiter. Martianus states they are always in agreement among themselves.<ref>Arnobius ''Adversus Nationes'' III 40, 3; Martianus Capella ''De Nuptiis'' I 41: "Senatores deorum qui Penates ferebantur Tonantis ipsius quorumque nomina, quoniam publicari secretum caeleste non pertulit, ex eo quod omnia pariter repromittunt, nomen eis consensione perficit".</ref> While these last gods seem to be the Penates of Jupiter, Jupiter himself along with Juno and Minerva is one of the Penates of man according to some authors.<ref>Arnobius ''Adversus Nationes'' III 40 4; Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' III 4 9.</ref>

This complex concept is reflected in Martianus Capella's division of heaven, found in Book I of his ''De Nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae'', which places the ''Di Consentes Penates'' in region I with the ''Favores Opertanei''; ''Ceres'' and ''Genius'' in region V; ''Pales'' in region VI; ''Favor'' and ''Genius'' (again) in region VII; ''Secundanus Pales'', ''Fortuna'' and ''Favor Pastor'' in region XI. The disposition of these divine entities and their repetition in different locations may be due to the fact that ''Penates'' belonging to different categories (of Jupiter in region I, earthly or of mortal men in region V) are intended. ''Favor(es)'' may be the [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] masculine equivalent of ''Fortuna''.<ref>Gérard Capdeville "Les dieux de Martianus Capella" in ''Revue de l'histoire des religions'' '''213''' 1996 3 p. 285 citing Carl Olof Thulin ''Die Götter des Martianus Capella und der Bronzeleber von Piacenza'' (=RGVV 3. 1) Giessen 1906 pp. 38–39. On the topic see also A. L. Luschi "Cacu, Fauno e i venti' in ''Studi Etruschi'' '''57''' 1991 pp. 105–117.</ref>