Editing History of Ukraine (section)

=== Ukraine in Soviet Union (1922–1991) ===
{{Main|Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic}}
{{Further|Collectivization in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Operation Vistula}}

==== Ukrainization and New Economic Policy ====
{{Main|Ukrainization#1923–1931: early years of Soviet Ukraine|New Economic Policy}}

[[File:Ukposter.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Ukrainianization]] program aimed at fostering [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian ethnic identity]] among the population of Ukraine. This 1921 recruitment poster uses Ukrainian orthography to convey its message, "Son, join the {{ill|School of Red Commanders|uk|Школа червоних старшин}}, and the defense of Soviet Ukraine will be ensured".]]
In the 1920s, the Soviet government implemented a policy of "[[Ukrainization]]" as part of its broader strategy to strengthen support for the Soviet regime in non-Russian republics. This policy encouraged the use of the [[Ukrainian language]] in education, government, and media. [[Ukrainian culture]] and history were promoted to win over the local population and intellectual elite. Ukrainization allowed a degree of cultural revival after years of Russian dominance in Ukraine. [[Ukrainian literature]], theater, and arts experienced significant growth, and schools began teaching in the Ukrainian language. However, this policy was carefully controlled by the [[Communist Party]], ensuring that cultural development aligned with [[Soviet ideology]].<ref name=EncUkr>[[Volodymyr Kubiyovych]]; Zenon Kuzelia, Енциклопедія українознавства ''(Encyclopedia of Ukrainian studies)'', 3-volumes, Kyiv, 1994, {{ISBN|5-7702-0554-7}}</ref>

Following the devastation of war and revolution, the Soviet government introduced the [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP) to stabilize the economy. It represented a temporary retreat from pure socialist policies, allowing some elements of private enterprise and market mechanisms to function alongside state-controlled industries. The NEP had a mixed impact on Ukraine. On one hand, it allowed limited economic recovery, especially in agriculture and small-scale industry. Peasants were permitted to sell surplus products on the market, and small businesses could operate under certain conditions. On the other hand, large-scale industries remained under state control, and the heavy industrial sector, which Ukraine relied on, remained inefficient and slow to recover. While the NEP offered some relief to peasants, many remained suspicious of Soviet power, particularly after the harsh grain requisition policies during the civil war. Tensions between the peasantry and the Soviet regime continued to simmer.<ref name="Bloomsbury Education">{{Citation|chapter=The New Economic Policy (NEP)|publisher=Bloomsbury Education|isbn=9781472926647|doi=10.5040/9781472926647.ch-034|title=Resources for Teaching History : 14–16|year=2010}}</ref>

During this period, the Communist Party tightened its control over Ukraine. The [[Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)|Communist Party of Ukraine]] (CPU) became a key instrument in enforcing Soviet policies and maintaining order. Political power was highly centralized, with decisions made in [[Moscow]] dictating policy in Ukraine. Despite the relative cultural freedom of Ukrainization, any political opposition to the Soviet regime was harshly repressed. Former nationalists, intellectuals, and opponents of Soviet power were marginalized, and any movement toward true Ukrainian autonomy was quickly suppressed.<ref>Pyrih, R. ''[http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?Z21ID=&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Kom_partiya_Ukr_Radyanska_doba Communist Party of Ukraine, the Soviet period (КОМУНІСТИЧНА ПАРТІЯ УКРАЇНИ РАДЯНСЬКОЇ ДОБИ)]''. Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine. 2007</ref>

[[File:Dmitry Kardovsky - NEPmen.jpg|thumb|"Nepmen", caricature by [[Dmitry Kardovsky]], 1920s]]
In the early Soviet years, there was a strong emphasis on rebuilding Ukraine's war-ravaged economy. Ukraine was a critical industrial center, especially in coal, steel, and machinery production. While some infrastructure was rebuilt, economic challenges remained due to the inefficiency of state control and the lingering effects of war. Ukraine, being an agriculturally rich region, faced difficulties as the peasants were subjected to state control over grain production. Despite the NEP, rural areas continued to suffer from poverty, which would later fuel resistance to Soviet policies.<ref name="Richman">{{cite journal|last1= Richman|first1= Sheldon|title= War Communism to NEP: the road from serfdom|journal= Journal of Libertarian Studies|date= 1981|pages= 93–94|url= https://cdn.mises.org/5_1_5_0.pdf|access-date= 12 July 2017}}</ref>

By the late 1920s, the NEP was being phased out as the [[Soviet Union]] shifted toward a more centralized, state-controlled economy under [[Stalin]]. The focus turned to rapid industrialization and forced [[collectivization]], laying the groundwork for the dramatic and tragic events of the 1930s, including the [[Holodomor]]. Although Ukrainization had seen relative success during the 1920s, Stalin’s regime began reversing the policy by the decade’s end, replacing it with a drive toward Russian centralization. The following years would witness a harsh crackdown on Ukrainian nationalism and culture as part of Stalin’s broader effort to consolidate control over the Soviet republics.<ref name="Bloomsbury Education"/>

==== Forced collectivization, industrialization and Holodomor ====
{{Main|Collective farming#Soviet Union|Industrialization in the Soviet Union|Holodomor}}

In 1929, [[Joseph Stalin]] launched a campaign of forced collectivization across the Soviet Union, including Ukraine. The policy aimed to consolidate individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled collective farms ([[kolkhoz]]es) to increase agricultural productivity and secure grain supplies for rapid [[industrialization]]. Ukrainian peasants, particularly wealthier ones known as "[[kulak]]s", resisted [[collectivization]]. The Soviet regime responded with brutal force, seizing land, livestock, and grain, and deporting or executing those who resisted. Collectivization led to widespread chaos in rural areas. Agricultural output plummeted due to poor planning, lack of incentives, and resistance from the peasantry. The disruption of traditional farming practices and the state's requisition of grain exacerbated food shortages.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Robert V. |title=The Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia |date=1 October 2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |page=195 |isbn=978-0-300-13493-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27JGzAoMLjoC |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Ukraine famine map.png|thumb|left|Depopulation in 1929–1933, including during the [[Holodomor]].]]
In 1932-33, [[Holodomor]], derived from the Ukrainian words for "hunger" ({{lang|uk|holod}}) and "extermination" ({{lang|uk|moryty}}), was a man-made famine that resulted from the Soviet government's grain requisition policies and punitive measures against those who resisted collectivization. Several millions of Ukrainians died from starvation during the Holodomor. Entire villages were decimated, and the event remains one of the most tragic episodes in Ukrainian history. The Soviet government denied the famine's existence and continued exporting grain during the crisis. The Holodomor not only devastated the rural population but also weakened [[Ukrainian national identity]] and culture. It served as a stark warning against any resistance to Soviet authority.{{r|eb Makuchand|at=[https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine/The-famine-of-1932-33-Holodomor §§ 8.1.3]|q=The Great Famine (Holodomor) of 1932–33 – a man-made demographic catastrophe unprecedented in peacetime. Of the estimated six to eight million people who died in the Soviet Union, about four to five million were Ukrainians... Its deliberate nature is underscored by the fact that no physical basis for famine existed in Ukraine ... Soviet authorities set requisition quotas for Ukraine at an impossibly high level. Brigades of special agents were dispatched to Ukraine to assist in procurement, and homes were routinely searched and foodstuffs confiscated ... The rural population was left with insufficient food to feed itself.}}<ref>{{cite magazine| first=Michael |last=Ellman|date=April 2018 |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300 |title=Review of: Anne Applebaum's ''Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine'', New York: Doubleday. 2017. 496{{nbsp}}pp. $35.00 |magazine=H-Diplo, H-Net Reviews in the Humanities and Social Sciences|pages=1–4}}<!--{{isbn| 978-0-385-53885-5}}--> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227202140/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300 |date=27 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Andreas|last=Kappeler|author-link=Andreas Kappeler|title=Ungleiche Brüder: Russen und Ukrainer vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart|trans-title=Unequal Brothers: Russians and Ukrainians from the Middle Ages to the Present|year=2023|publisher=C.H.Beck oHG|place=München|isbn=978-3-406-80042-9|language=de|page=168|quote=Der weit überproportionale Anteil an ukrainischen Opfern wirft die Frage auf, ob die sowjetische Führung mit der von ihr herbeigeführten Hungersnot nicht nur allgemein die Bauern, sondern spezifisch die ukrainischen Bauern und damit die Basis der ukrainischen Nation treffen wollte.|trans-quote=The vastly disproportionate number of Ukrainian victims raises the question whether the Soviet leadership was targeting not just the peasants in general with the famine it caused, but specifically the Ukrainian peasants and thereby the foundations of the Ukrainian nation.}}</ref>

Stalin's economic strategy included a series of [[Five-year plans of the Soviet Union|Five-Year Plans]] aimed at rapidly industrializing the Soviet Union. Ukraine, with its rich natural resources and strategic location, was a key focus of these plans. Ukraine became a major center for heavy industry, particularly in coal mining, steel production, and machine building. Cities like [[Kharkiv]], Dnipropetrovsk (now [[Dnipro]]), and Stalino (now [[Donetsk]]) were transformed into industrial hubs. The rapid growth of industry led to significant urbanization. Millions of [[Ukrainians]] moved from rural areas to cities in search of work, fundamentally altering the demographic and social landscape.<ref name="PetrovskyII">Petrovsky David Alexandrovich. [http://alkruglov.narod.ru/z-petrovsk.pdf Reconstruction of the Technical School and the Five-Year Frame]. Page 5 – Leningrad, Gostekhizdat, 1930. – 42 pages. (Leningrad Regional Sovnarkhoz)</ref>

==== Political repression and the Great Purge ====
{{Main|Executed Renaissance|Great Purge}}

Throughout the 1930s, [[Stalin]]'s regime became increasingly marked by paranoia and a relentless drive to eradicate any perceived threats to his authority. This climate of suspicion fueled widespread political repression across the [[Soviet Union]], profoundly impacting every layer of society in Ukraine. The purges specifically targeted Ukrainian intellectuals, artists, political leaders, and ordinary citizens suspected of harboring nationalist sympathies or potential dissenting views. Stalin’s objective was clear: to eliminate any possible source of opposition to Soviet rule, no matter how tenuous or imagined.<ref>[https://www.thecollector.com/stalin-great-purge-political-rivals/  Stalin’s Great Purge: Gulags, Show Trials, and Terror]</ref>

[[File:Биківнянські могили3.jpg|thumb|Mass burial in Bykivnia]]
The [[Great Purge]], reaching its zenith between 1936 and 1938, devastated Ukraine. During this period, tens of thousands were arrested, tortured, and executed, or sent to forced labor camps (the [[Gulag]]) in remote Soviet regions. The Ukrainian intelligentsia, initially supported during the Soviet policy of Ukrainization in the 1920s, became a particular target as they were increasingly viewed as a threat to Soviet ideological conformity. In a systematic crackdown, the [[NKVD]], Stalin’s secret police, dismantled the Ukrainian cultural and intellectual community. Most members of this intelligentsia were either imprisoned, executed, or driven to despair and suicide. One notable site, the [[Slovo Building]] in Kharkiv, where many prominent Ukrainian intellectuals resided, became infamous as a place where residents were closely surveilled, then rounded up in these purges.<ref>Павличко С. Дискурс модернізму в українській літературі: [монографія] / С. Павличко. — К.: Либідь, 1997. — C. 170.</ref><ref>Українська література XX століття: навч.-метод. посіб. для студентів 2-го курсу, які навчаються за спец. 035 — Філологія (заоч. форма) / Нар. укр. акад., каф. українознавства; упоряд. О. В. Слюніна. — Харків: Вид-во НУА, 2018. — 128 с.</ref>

The terror also took a horrific toll on [[Kyiv]], which became the capital of the Ukrainian SSR in 1934, replacing Kharkiv. Tens of thousands of Kyiv’s citizens were abducted by Soviet security forces, tortured, and summarily executed on fabricated charges. Victims were accused of treason, espionage, or nationalist activities without evidence and sentenced to death in sham trials. Their bodies were secretly buried in [[Bykivnia]], a wooded area near Kyiv, which later became one of the largest mass grave sites in Ukraine. After Ukraine’s independence and the declassification of [[KGB]] archives, thousands of graves were discovered in Bykivnia, leading to the establishment of the [[Bykivnia graves|Bykivnia Graves Memorial Complex]]. Soviet authorities had long denied the truth, claiming instead that [[Nazi]] atrocities had caused the mass burials.<ref name="Pearson">{{cite book |author=Raymond Pearson |author-link=Raymond Pearson |title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire |year=2002 |publisher=Palgrave |isbn=0333948076 |url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofsoviet00pear |page=[https://archive.org/details/risefallofsoviet00pear/page/n243 220] |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name="Kuzio">{{cite book | author =Taras Kuzio |author2=Andrew Wilson | title = Ukraine: Perestroika to Independence |year=1994 |publisher=Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press |location=[[University of Alberta]] | isbn=092086287X }}</ref>

These purges were marked by infamous show trials, where prominent figures were coerced, often through brutal interrogation, into confessing to invented charges of anti-Soviet activity. The loss of Ukraine's educated and skilled citizens stifled intellectual, cultural, and social progress for decades, creating a legacy of fear that has hampered Ukraine's development and left a scar that is remembered in Ukraine to this day.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Purge  Britannica: Great-Purge]</ref>

==== World War II and the Nazi Occupation ====
{{Main|Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine|Reichskommissariat Ukraine|The Holocaust in Ukraine}}

[[File:Act_of_Subcarpathian_Rus_Autonomy_1938.png|thumb|left|Constitutional Law on the Autonomy of Carpatho-Ukraine]]
In October 1938, following the [[Munich Agreement]], [[Carpatho-Ukraine]], also known as Subcarpathian Ruthenia, gained autonomy within [[Second Czechoslovak Republic|Czechoslovakia]]. This allowed the formation of a local government led by [[Avhustyn Voloshyn]]. However, this period of autonomy was brief.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rychlík|first1=Jan|last2=Rychlíková|first2=Magdaléna|title=Podkarpatská Rus v dějinách Československa 1918–1946|year=2016|location=Praha|publisher=Vyšehrad|isbn=9788074297694 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jIJuDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>

In March 1939, as Czechoslovakia disintegrated under pressure from [[Nazi Germany]], Carpathian Ukraine declared independence as the [[Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine]]. The government envisioned this small, mountainous region as the nucleus of a future independent Ukrainian state. This independence was short-lived. Within days, [[Hungary|Hungarian]] forces, supported by Nazi Germany, invaded and occupied the region. The occupation was brutal, and many Ukrainian leaders were arrested or executed. Carpathian Ukraine remained under Hungarian control.<ref name="2660044karpatskoiukraini">{{cite web|title = Today is the 80th anniversary of the proclamation of Carpatho-Ukraine|url = https://ukrinform.ua/rubric-society/2660044-sogodni-80ricca-z-dna-progolosenna-karpatskoi-ukraini.html|work = [[Ukrinform]]|language = uk|date = 15 March 2019|access-date = 24 March 2019|df = dmy-all}}</ref>

On 1 September 1939, [[World War II]] began with [[Invasion of Poland|Nazi Germany’s invasion]] of western [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]. Sixteen days later, the [[Soviet Union]] [[Soviet invasion of Poland|invaded eastern Poland]] under the terms of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], dividing [[Eastern Europe]] into spheres of influence between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. The eastern part of Poland, which included Western Ukraine ([[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] and [[Volhynia]]), was annexed into the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]]. As Soviet forces occupied these territories, they quickly implemented [[Sovietization]] policies, repressing nationalist movements and religious institutions, which fueled local resentment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=German-Soviet Pact |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/german-soviet-pact |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org |quote=...paved the way for the joint invasion and occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union that September.}}</ref>

On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany and [[Axis powers|its allies]] launched [[Operation Barbarossa]], invading the Soviet Union. Ukraine became one of the main battlegrounds during the conflict, as Nazi forces occupied large parts of the country, including major cities such as [[Kyiv]], [[Odesa]], and [[Lviv]]. The [[German-occupied Europe|German occupation]], while initially seen by some as a potential liberation from the oppressive Soviet regime, quickly turned brutal. [[Nazi ideology]] viewed Ukraine as a critical part of its plan for [[Lebensraum]] (living space) and exploitation of resources.<ref name="Mineau180">{{Cite book |last=André Mineau |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLcDEUZfW4EC |title=Operation Barbarossa: Ideology and Ethics Against Human Dignity |publisher=Rodopi |year=2004 |isbn=978-9042016330 |page=180 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Baranowski141">{{Cite book |first=Shelley |last=Baranowski |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iA-NZ_RgP5kC&q=continental+Lebensraum |title=Nazi Empire: German Colonialism and Imperialism from Bismarck to Hitler |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0521857390 |page=141 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jeremy Noakes |date=30 March 2011 |title=BBC – History – World Wars: Hitler and ''Lebensraum'' in the East |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/hitler_lebensraum_01.shtml}}</ref><ref name="USHMM">{{Cite web |title=Lebensraum |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/lebensraum |access-date=9 March 2019 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Ukrayins'ka Povstans'ka Armiya (poster).jpg|thumb|UPA propaganda poster. The OUN/UPA's formal greeting is written in Ukrainian on two of horizontal lines ''Glory to Ukraine – Glory to (her) Heroes''. The soldier is standing on the banners of the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany.]]
Around 4.5 to 6 million [[Ukrainians]] fought in the Soviet [[Red Army]] against Nazi Germany, contributing significantly to the eventual Soviet victory. At the same time, Ukraine became a center of [[Soviet partisans|partisan resistance]]. Some Ukrainians collaborated with the [[Germans]], hoping to secure independence, while others joined the resistance movement. The [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UPA), formed by the [[Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists]] (OUN), fought for an independent Ukraine, engaging in conflict with both the Nazis and the Soviet forces. This dual struggle was motivated by a desire to free Ukraine from foreign domination, but the complexity of alliances and enmities made this a multi-sided war.<ref>Leonid D. Grenkevich. The Soviet Partisan Movement, 1941–1944: A Critical Historiographical Analysis.Routledge. 2013. p.325</ref>

Meanwhile, some factions within the [[Ukrainian nationalism|Ukrainian nationalist]] movement, such as the [[Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance]] (UNDA), sought autonomy within a pro-Polish framework before the war. However, Polish policies of forced assimilation marginalized these efforts, leading to growing tensions between [[Polish people|Poles]] and Ukrainians. During the German occupation, these tensions escalated into violent ethnic conflicts in [[Volhynia]] and [[Eastern Galicia]], known as the [[Volhynia genocide]]. The [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UPA) and Polish underground forces, including the [[Armia Krajowa]], engaged in a simultaneous campaign of mutual violence during 1943–1944. The UPA targeted Polish civilians in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, resulting in the deaths of up to 100,000 Poles, while Polish forces carried out attacks on Ukrainian civilians, killing up to 25,000 Ukrainians. These events, driven by competing nationalist ambitions, caused immense suffering on both sides and remain a deeply painful chapter in Ukrainian-Polish history.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/spory-o-wolyn/polish-ukrainian-historical-disputes-over-the-volhynian-massacres |title=Mariusz Zajączkowski: ''1943 Volhynia massacre'' |access-date=9 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413132510/http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/spory-o-wolyn/polish-ukrainian-historical-disputes-over-the-volhynian-massacres |archive-date=13 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[Nazi occupation of Ukraine]] was marked by extreme brutality, especially towards [[Jews]]. Around 1.5 million Jews were murdered during the [[Holocaust in Ukraine]], with atrocities such as the [[Babi Yar massacre]], where tens of thousands of Jews were executed near Kyiv. The occupation also saw widespread repression of other groups, including [[Romani people|Roma]], communists, and Ukrainian nationalists.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich | date = 2011 | publisher = William Shirer | isbn = 978-1-4516-5168-3 | page = 939}}</ref>

By 1943, following the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], the tide of the war began to turn in favor of the Soviet Union. Soviet forces began to push the Germans out of Ukraine, and by 1944, the entire country was back under Soviet control. However, Soviet "liberation" did not bring freedom for many Ukrainians. The Soviet government imposed harsh reprisals against those suspected of collaboration with the Nazis or support for Ukrainian independence. The [[NKVD]] (Soviet secret police) conducted mass arrests, deportations, and executions. Small groups of UPA partisans continued their armed resistance against the Soviet regime well into the late 1940s and early 1950s, particularly in Western Ukraine, though the Soviet authorities eventually crushed this insurgency.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kyivpost.com/article/opinion/op-ed/ukrainian-insurgent-army-myths-and-facts-314313.html|title=Ukrainian Insurgent Army: Myths and facts - Oct. 12, 2012|website=KyivPost|date=12 October 2012 }}</ref>

[[File:ZakapratskaUkraina1944.png|thumb|left|Front page of the Zakarpattia Ukraine newspaper with manifest of unification with [[Soviet Ukraine]], 1944]]
Carpathian Ukraine, during the [[Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II|Hungarian occupation]], faced significant repression, particularly against its Jewish and Ukrainian populations. Thousands of Jews from the region were deported to [[Nazi concentration camps]], and many Ukrainian nationalists were imprisoned or killed. In 1944, the Soviet Red Army "liberated" Carpathian Ukraine from Hungarian and German forces.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A kárpátaljai magyar és német polgári lakosság tömeges elhurcolása szovjet hadifogságba|journal=Orpheus Noster|date=2012|volume=4|issue=2|pages=46–47|trans-title=The deportation of masses of Hungarian and German civilians from Subcarpathia to Soviet prisoner of war camps|url=https://www.academia.edu/11885029|publisher=Károli Gáspár Református Egyetem|location=Budapest|language=hu}}</ref>

In addition to the annexation of Galicia and Volhynia, several other territories were incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR as a result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and subsequent wartime events. These included [[Bukovina|Northern Bukovina]], [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Carpathian Ukraine]] (Transcarpathia), and parts of [[Bessarabia|Northern and South Bessarabia]], regions with a predominantly Ukrainian population.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bukovyna |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm |publisher=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine]] |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513152453/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm |archive-date=13 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="Kafkadesk-2021">{{Cite web|title=On this Day, in 1945: Carpathian Ruthenia was annexed by the Soviet Union |date=29 June 1992 |publisher=Kafkadesk |url=https://kafkadesk.org/2021/06/29/on-this-day-in-1945-carpathian-ruthenia-was-annexed-by-the-soviet-union/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726185851/https://kafkadesk.org/2021/06/29/on-this-day-in-1945-carpathian-ruthenia-was-annexed-by-the-soviet-union/ |archive-date=26 July 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Post-war Ukrainian SSR, limited reforms and continuation of repressions ====
{{Main|Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic#postwar|De-Stalinization|History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)|Glasnost|Perestroika|label 1=Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Post-war years: 1945–1953}}

After World War II, amendments to the [[Constitutions of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR]] were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of [[international law]] in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at the same time. In particular, these amendments allowed the Ukrainian SSR to become one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN) together with the Soviet Union and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]]. This was part of a deal with the United States to ensure a degree of balance in the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]], which, the USSR opined, was unbalanced in favor of the Western Bloc. In its capacity as a member of the UN, the Ukrainian SSR was [[List of members of the United Nations Security Council|an elected member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]] in 1948–1949 and 1984–1985.<ref name=":Summits">{{Cite book|last=Reynolds|first=David|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/646810103|title=Summits: six meetings that shaped the twentieth century|date=2009|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-7867-4458-9|location=New York|oclc=646810103}}</ref><ref>Stalin: The Man and His Era. by Adam B. Ulam, pp. 606–607</ref>

[[File:Крытый-вагон-на-РЖД.jpg|thumb|The deportees were transported in such wagons]]
However, this period was also marked by severe repression and social upheaval. The [[Soviet famine of 1946–1947|famine of 1946-1947]] devastated large parts of Ukraine, as the Soviet government requisitioned the entirety of the grain harvest, exacerbating food shortages. Western Ukraine, however, was less affected by the famine, largely due to the resistance efforts of the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UIA). In response, the Soviet regime launched Operation "West" in 1947, [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|forcibly deporting]] over 77,000 individuals—men, women, and children—from Western Ukraine to [[Siberia]]. These deportees later played a critical role in organizing uprisings within the Soviet [[Gulag]] system, including the notable [[Norilsk Uprising]], which hastened the decline of the forced labor camp network.<ref>[http://24tv.ua/chomu_radyanska_vlada_zrobila_masovu_deportatsiyu_ukrayintsiv_u_sibir_n879491 Чому радянська влада зробила масову депортацію українців у Сибір]</ref><ref>История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920-х — первая половина 1950-х годов: Собрание документов в 7 томах. — Т. 6: Восстания, бунты и забастовки заключённых Архивная копия от 1 апреля 2024 на Wayback Machine / Ответственный редактор и составитель В. А. Козлов; Составитель О. В. Лавинская. — М.: РОССПЭН, 2004. — 736 с.</ref><ref>Макарова А. Б. Норильское восстание // «Воля»: журнал узников тоталитарных систем. — 1993. — № 1. — С. 68—108.</ref>

After Stalin's death in 1953 and the rise of [[Nikita Khrushchev]] to power, a significant number of political prisoners were released from the [[Gulag]], including many Ukrainian nationalists and intellectuals. However, those deemed a threat to Soviet authority often remained under close surveillance. While some victims of Stalinist purges were formally rehabilitated, this process was selective and incomplete, with many individuals still excluded from full reintegration into society.<ref>[http://www.moreorless.au.com/killers/stalin.html Joseph Stalin killer file] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803144222/http://www.moreorless.au.com/killers/stalin.html |date=3 August 2013 }}</ref>

[[File:25th anniversary of conquering virgin land. USSR block. 1979.jpg|thumb|left|USSR postage stamp of 1979, celebrating the 25th anniversary of the Virgin Lands campaign]]
Khrushchev, focusing on agricultural development, emphasized the importance of Ukraine’s fertile soil in Soviet food production. This was particularly significant in the context of the [[Virgin Lands Campaign]], which saw resources and personnel diverted to develop agricultural lands in [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakhstan]] and [[Siberia]]. While the campaign had long-term effects on the Ukrainian agricultural sector, Ukrainian collective farms remained inefficient, plagued by bureaucratic mismanagement that hampered the potential benefits of these reforms. During this period, industrial growth continued, with particular emphasis on heavy industries like steel production and mining. However, outdated infrastructure and poor planning often undermined progress, and economic inefficiency persisted throughout the country.<ref>{{cite book | last = Taubman | first = William | authorlink = William Taubman | title = Khrushchev: The Man and His Era | publisher = W.W. Norton & Company | year = 2003 | location = New York | pages = [https://archive.org/details/khrushchevmanhis00taub/page/260 260–262] | isbn = 978-0393051445 | url = https://archive.org/details/khrushchevmanhis00taub/page/260 }}</ref>

The [[Khrushchev Thaw]], a period of relative cultural liberalization, also allowed for a limited expression of Ukrainian identity, especially through literature, the arts, and historical studies. Prominent Ukrainian writers such as [[Oles Honchar]] and [[Lina Kostenko]] emerged, reflecting themes of national identity and social change. Their work offered subtle resistance to Soviet ideologies, though they had to navigate a highly censored environment. [[Industrialization]] also sparked rapid [[urbanization]], with many Ukrainians moving to cities for factory and mining jobs. This period saw a rise in literacy rates and access to education, contributing to the development of a more technically skilled population. However, the curricula remained ideologically driven, prioritizing loyalty to the [[Communist Party]] over independent thought or national identity.<ref>Tompson, William J. ''Khrushchev: A Political Life''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995</ref>

[[File:Soviet Union Administrative Divisions 1989.jpg|thumb|Location of the Ukrainian SSR (yellow) within the [[Soviet Union]] in 1954–1991]]
In 1954, the [[Crimean Peninsula]] [[1954 transfer of Crimea|was transferred]] from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR) to the Ukrainian SSR. The transfer was largely administrative, as both the RSFSR and the Ukrainian SSR were part of the [[Soviet Union]], and it was part of Khrushchev's broader strategy, rather than a gesture of genuine autonomy for Ukraine.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18287223 Crimea profile – Overview], BBC News</ref> Meanwhile, [[Ukrainian nationalists]], including remnants of the [[Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists]] (OUN) and the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UPA), continued to face persecution. While the UPA’s armed resistance had been largely crushed by the early 1950s, nationalist sentiments remained a clandestine force, particularly among intellectuals and rural populations. Those who strayed too far from [[Soviet ideology]] faced [[censorship]], [[harassment]], and sometimes [[imprisonment]]. Despite the brief cultural revival and improvements in living standards, the era was marked by continued economic inefficiency and political repression. The limited freedoms allowed under Khrushchev's rule fostered a new generation of Ukrainian intellectuals who began to explore national identity in ways that would later fuel the dissident movement. However, despite these small steps toward cultural and intellectual freedom, Ukraine remained firmly under Soviet control, with little political autonomy or room for genuine national development.<ref>[[Sergei Khrushchev|Khrushchev, Sergei N.]], ''Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower'', Penn State Press, 2000.</ref><ref>Schecter, Jerrold L, ed. and trans., ''Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes'', Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1990</ref>

The transfer of power from Nikita Khrushchev to [[Leonid Brezhnev]] in 1964 was a result of a coup orchestrated by the Communist Party leadership. Khrushchev's policies, such as [[de-Stalinization]] and economic reforms, had created dissatisfaction among party elites due to their perceived instability and inefficiency. In October 1964, during a [[Politburo]] meeting, Khrushchev was accused of policy failures and forced to resign. Leonid Brezhnev, who had gained the trust of party conservatives, replaced Khrushchev as [[General Secretary]]. Brezhnev’s leadership marked a return to collective decision-making, stability, and more conservative policies, emphasizing continuity and avoiding the bold reforms associated with Khrushchev.<ref name=":KBL">George W. Breslauer, ''Khrushchev and Brezhnev As Leaders'' (1982).</ref>

{{Multiple image
| header            = Some Ukrainian dissidents
| align             = left
| total_width       = 230
| image1            = Ivan Dziuba (2004).jpg
| caption1          = [[Ivan Dziuba]]
| image2            = EthnoCarpathians 22082017DolynaUA-26 Crop and fix.jpg
| caption2          = [[Vasyl Stus]]
}}
Under Brezhnev, often associated with the "stagnation" period, Ukraine faced significant challenges. Centralized control from [[Moscow]] left [[Ukrainian Communist Party]] leaders, such as [[Volodymyr Shcherbytsky]], as mere executors of [[Kremlin]] policies. [[Russification]] policies intensified, sidelining the Ukrainian language and culture in favor of Soviet Russian dominance. Ukrainian literature, art, and history were heavily censored, with works reflecting national identity banned or rewritten. Political repression was severe. The [[KGB]] targeted [[dissident]]s, intellectuals, and cultural figures advocating for Ukrainian autonomy or identity. Figures like [[Vasyl Stus]], [[Ivan Dziuba]], and [[Viacheslav Chornovil]] faced harassment, imprisonment, or exile. Despite repression, underground movements persisted, using samizdat to circulate banned works and raise awareness of Soviet human rights violations.<ref name=":KBL"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://liva.com.ua/vladimir-shherbiczkij-i-ego-vremya.html|title=ВЛАДИМИР ЩЕРБИЦКИЙ И ЕГО ВРЕМЯ|newspaper=liva.com.ua|date=13 February 2020 |access-date=5 August 2022}}</ref>

Economically, Ukraine remained an industrial powerhouse, producing [[steel]], [[coal]], and [[machinery]], and serving as the Soviet Union's "breadbasket". However, inefficient planning, outdated infrastructure, and environmental degradation plagued the economy. Poor agricultural yields and bureaucratic mismanagement led to food shortages. Urbanization grew, but housing shortages and inadequate services highlighted the stagnation. Environmental issues worsened, particularly in industrial regions like [[Donbas]], where pollution severely impacted public health. Rural areas were neglected, fueling urban migration. Despite Ukraine’s contributions to the [[Soviet space program]] and industrial output, minimal modernization occurred.<ref name=":KBL"/>

[[File:UAHELG.jpg|thumb|Ukrainian Helsinki Group]]
The suppression of Ukrainian identity and the struggles of dissidents sowed seeds of resistance. Activists like Vasyl Stus and the [[Ukrainian Helsinki Group]] exposed Soviet human rights abuses, though they faced harsh punishments. From the 1960s through the 1980s, Ukraine became a focal point for [[Soviet dissidents|dissident activity]] within the USSR. A disproportionately high number of Ukrainian intellectuals, activists, and cultural figures were imprisoned, exiled, or subjected to [[Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union|punitive psychiatry]] for opposing the regime. These movements not only highlighted systemic oppression in the Soviet Union, but also laid the foundation for a national awakening that ultimately fueled Ukraine's quest for independence.<ref>Дисиденти. Антологія текстів / Упоряд.: О. Сінченко, Д. Стус, Л. Фінберг; Наук. ред. О. Сінченко. Національний університет «Києво-Могилянська академія», Центр досліджень історії та культури східноєвропейського єврейства, Центр європейських гуманітарних досліджень; Український католицький університет, Інститут релігії та суспільства. ‒ K.: Дух і Літера, 2018. ‒ 656 с. ‒ (БІБЛІОТЕКА СПРОТИВУ, БІБЛІОТЕКА НАДІЇ)</ref>

After the death of Leonid Brezhnev in 1982, the [[Soviet Union]] experienced a period of short-lived leadership under [[Yuri Andropov]] (1982–1984) and [[Konstantin Chernenko]] (1984–1985), before [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] assumed power in 1985. Gorbachev's introduction of ''[[glasnost]]'' (openness) and ''[[perestroika]]'' (restructuring) marked a turning point, fostering an atmosphere of reform and amplifying public dissatisfaction with Soviet governance. Glasnost opened the door for greater freedom of expression, allowing Ukrainian intellectuals, activists, and dissidents to publicly address long-suppressed issues such as [[Russification]], environmental degradation, and historical atrocities like the [[Holodomor]]. During this time, organizations like the Ukrainian Helsinki Group, and movements like [[People's Movement of Ukraine|Rukh]] (the People’s Movement of Ukraine, established in 1989) emerged as key advocates for greater autonomy, cultural revival, and ultimately, independence. As a major industrial and agricultural hub within the USSR, Ukraine bore the brunt of the broader Soviet economic stagnation. Inefficient central planning, a lack of innovation, and overexploitation of resources resulted in widespread economic inefficiencies and severe environmental damage.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=30 August 2022 |title=How 'Glasnost' and 'Perestroika' Changed the World |url=https://time.com/5512665/mikhail-gorbachev-glasnost-perestroika/ |access-date=2 February 2024 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=Perestroika: Glasnost, Definition & Soviet Union |url=https://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/perestroika-and-glasnost |access-date=2 February 2024 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat_zoomed.JPG|thumb|left|[[Pripyat]] with the [[Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant]] in the distance]]
On 26 April 1986, the Ukrainian town of [[Pripyat]] became the site of one of the worst nuclear disasters in history when Reactor 4 of the [[Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant]] exploded. This released a significant amount of radioactive material into the atmosphere, which was carried across [[Europe]] by wind currents. The resulting radioactive fallout contaminated vast areas of northern [[Ukraine]] and neighboring [[Belarus]]. The immediate aftermath of the explosion was devastating. Two plant workers died on the night of the accident, and in the weeks that followed, 28 emergency workers succumbed to acute radiation sickness. The disaster forced the evacuation of over 100,000 people from Pripyat and surrounding areas, leaving behind ghost towns and a contaminated [[Chernobyl exclusion zone]] that remains uninhabitable to this day. This tragedy had profound environmental, health, and political consequences. The [[Chernobyl disaster]] galvanized local independence movements, such as Rukh, which gained significant momentum in the late 1980s and contributed to the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Accident of 1986 |url=https://chnpp.gov.ua/en/about/history-of-the-chnpp/accident-of-1986 |access-date=14 July 2022 |website=Chornobyl NPP}}</ref>

The late 1980s witnessed a cultural awakening in Ukraine, characterized by a renewed interest in the [[Ukrainian language]], traditions, and history. Efforts to revive Ukrainian cultural identity challenged decades of Soviet policies aimed at suppressing it. The reestablishment of the [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church]] and movements advocating for an independent Ukrainian Orthodox Church underscored growing dissatisfaction with Soviet [[atheism]] and fueled nationalist sentiment. These developments signaled a rising tide of Ukrainian self-awareness and a determination to reclaim national identity and sovereignty.<ref>Victoria Smolkin, ''A Sacred Space is Never Empty: A History of Soviet Atheism'' (Princeton UP, 2018) [https://hdiplo.org/to/RT21-56 online reviews] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424221605/https://issforum.org/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-XXI-56.pdf |date=24 April 2022 }}</ref><ref>Bociurkiw В. R. Religious Situation in the Soviet Ukraine. A paper presented at a Symposium marking the 30th anniversary of the Ukrainian Quarterly in Doc. 1974.Koszeliwec I. Kronika ukrainskiego oporu. Kultura. № 1 — 2 (328 — 329).</ref>

==== The Path to Independence ====
{{Main|People's Movement of Ukraine|1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution|Revolution on Granite|Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine|Dissolution of the Soviet Union}}
{{See also|Viacheslav Chornovil}}

By 1990, calls for Ukrainian sovereignty reached a fever pitch, fueled by decades of cultural suppression, economic exploitation, and a growing national consciousness among [[Ukrainians]]. On 21 January 1990, one of the most iconic demonstrations of unity and determination occurred when over 300,000 Ukrainians formed the "human chain" stretching from [[Kyiv]] to [[Lviv]]. This symbolic act, known as the "Chain of Unity", marked the anniversary of the [[Unification Act]] of the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] and the [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]] in 1919. It highlighted the nation's steadfast commitment to reclaiming its independence, emphasizing the unity between eastern and western Ukraine.<ref name="subtelny-576">{{cite book|title=Ukraine: A History|author=Subtelny, Orest|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|year=2000|isbn=0-8020-8390-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/576 576]|author-link=Orest Subtelny|url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/576}}</ref>

[[File:В.М.Чорновіл на шахті ім. Поченкова. 3.JPG|thumb|[[Viacheslav Chornovil]] meeting with striking miners during the [[1990s Donbas miners' strikes]]]]
These events were part of the broader [[1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution]]—a period of democratic transformation, national awakening, and growing resistance to Soviet authoritarianism. The revolution was driven by civil society, student movements, intellectuals, and reform-minded politicians who pushed for sovereignty, environmental justice, human rights, and national self-determination. One of the most influential forces during this period was [[People's Movement of Ukraine|Rukh]] (the People's Movement of Ukraine). Initially established as a cultural and civic organization, Rukh quickly evolved into a powerful political force advocating for Ukrainian independence. It played a central role in organizing protests, defending national symbols, and supporting legislative reforms, such as the recognition of [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] as the official state language.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sappa |first=M. M. |title=Національно-визвольна революція в Україні 1989–1991 рр. як продукт соціального руху з багатовекторною мережною структурою |trans-title=The 1989–1991 National Liberation Revolution in Ukraine as a product of a social movement and multivector network of structures |url=https://dspace.univd.edu.ua/items/4761cd68-45f9-4e45-bd33-18d119272676 |access-date=17 December 2023 |website=Kharkiv National University of Internal Affairs}}</ref>

A key figure in this movement was [[Viacheslav Chornovil]]—a former Soviet [[dissident]], journalist, and passionate advocate for national rights. Chornovil emerged as one of the most respected voices of the revolution. His moral authority, experience of imprisonment for political beliefs, and powerful rhetoric inspired thousands. As a leader within Rukh, he helped to unify disparate opposition groups and articulate a clear vision for an independent Ukraine based on democratic principles and historical justice.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hrytsak |first=Yaroslav |author-link=Yaroslav Hrytsak |title=Ukraine 1989: The Blessing of Ignorance |url=https://www.iwm.at/transit-online/ukraine-1989-the-blessing-of-ignorance |access-date=17 December 2023 |website=[[Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen]]}}</ref>

One of the defining moments of this period came in October 1990, during the student-led protest in [[Kyiv]] known as the [[Revolution on Granite]]. Hundreds of students went on hunger strike in the central square, demanding the resignation of the Soviet-aligned government, the rejection of a new union treaty, and the mandatory military service of Ukrainians only within Ukraine. Their peaceful protest captured the public’s imagination and ended in success—the resignation of Prime Minister [[Vitaly Masol]] and the partial acceptance of their demands. It was a landmark event that showed the strength of civic resistance and the determination of Ukraine’s younger generation to chart a new political course.<ref name="lesson-revolution-granite">[http://m.day.kyiv.ua/en/article/day-after-day/lesson-revolution-granite The lesson of the Revolution on Granite], ''[[Den (newspaper)|Den]]'' (4 October 2016)</ref><ref name=istpravda246>{{in lang|uk}}
 [http://www.istpravda.com.ua/artefacts/2013/10/2/137246/#0 "Revolution on Granite". Photos of October 1990], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (accessdate: 11 November 2017)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Revolution on Granite |url=https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/revolution-granite |access-date=10 November 2022 |website=Harvard University Digital Atlas on Ukraine}}</ref>

[[File:1991 CPA 6338.jpg|thumb|left|The Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine was marked on a 1991 USSR postage stamp]]
On 16 July 1990, the [[Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]] adopted the [[Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine]]—a foundational legal document asserting the supremacy of Ukrainian laws over Soviet legislation, the right to form its own military, conduct international relations, and establish an independent economy. Though not a declaration of full independence, it was a decisive step that laid the groundwork for the future Ukrainian state and provided a legal framework for distancing from the USSR.<ref>{{cite book |last=Åslund |first=Anders |author-link=Anders Åslund |date=March 2009 |title=How Ukraine Became a Market Economy and Democracy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C8C3xuqd6aMC&pg=PA21 |access-date=29 January 2021 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[Peterson Institute for International Economics]] |page=21 |isbn=9780881325461}}</ref>

In March 1991, a [[1991 Soviet Union referendum|referendum on preserving the Soviet Union]] was held, and in Ukraine, the majority of voters approved the new Union Treaty, supporting the idea of joining the Soviet Union based on [[Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine|Ukraine's Declaration of State Sovereignty]]. Voters were specifically asked, "Do you agree that Ukraine should be part of a Union of Soviet sovereign states on the basis of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine?" The proposal was approved by 81.7% of voters.<ref name=N2>Nohlen & Stöver, p1985</ref>

However, a few months later, events occurred that radically changed the situation. In August 1991, the so-called [[August Coup]] took place in [[Moscow]], an attempt by conservative communists to seize power and regain tight control within the USSR. The coup failed, but it seriously undermined trust in the central government in the USSR, provoking a wave of declarations of independence among the republics.<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 November 2021|title=Union of Sovereign States|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/union-sovereign-states|website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref>