Editing History of Spain (section)

==Restoration (1874–1931)==
{{Main|Spain under the Restoration}}

=== Reign of Alfonso XII and Regency of Maria Christina ===
{{Main|Reign of Alfonso XII|Regency of Maria Christina of Austria}}
[[File:Don Quijote, 5 de octubre de 1894, cropping.jpg|thumb|right|1894 satirical cartoon depicting the tacit accord for seamless government change (''turnismo'') between the leaders of two dynastic parties ([[Práxedes Mateo Sagasta|Sagasta]] and [[Antonio Cánovas del Castillo|Cánovas del Castillo]]), with the country being lied in an allegorical fashion.]]
Following the success of a December 1874 military coup the monarchy was restored in the person of [[Alfonso XII of Spain|Alfonso XII]] (the son of former queen Isabella II). The ongoing Carlist insurrection was eventually put down.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Payne|first1=Stanley G.|last2=Beck|first2=Earl R.|date=February 1980|title=A Time of Triumph and Sorrow: Spanish Politics during the Reign of Alfonso XII, 1874–1885|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/491971|journal=The History Teacher|volume=13|issue=2|page=305|doi=10.2307/491971|jstor=491971|issn=0018-2745}}</ref> The [[Restoration (Spain)|Restoration]] period, following the proclamation of the [[Spanish Constitution of 1876|1876 Constitution]], witnessed the installment of an uncompetitive parliamentary system devised by [[Antonio Cánovas del Castillo]], in which two "dynastic" parties, the [[conservatism|conservatives]] and the [[liberalism|liberals]] alternated in control of the government (''[[turnos|turnismo]]''). Election fraud (materialized in the so-called ''[[caciquismo]]'') became ubiquitous, with elections reproducing pre-arranged outcomes struck in the Capital.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Paper Liberals: Press and Politics in Restoration Spain|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport & London|chapter=Elections and the Regency Press|first=David|last=Ortiz|pages=20–21|year=2000|isbn=0-313-312-16-8|chapter-url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=-5iFXgcllXoC}}}}</ref> Voter apathy was no less important.<ref name="CESWP">{{Cite journal|journal=Center for European Studies Working Paper|issue=101|title=Ministers and Regimes in Spain: From First to Second Restoration, 1874–2001|first1=Juan J.|last1=Linz|author-link=Juan José Linz|first2=Miguel|last2=Jerez|first3=Susana|last3=Corzo|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/148847781.pdf}}</ref> The [[Reign of Alfonso XII|reign of Alfonso]] was followed by that of his son [[Alfonso XIII]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beck|first=Earl R.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/892239313|title=A Time of triumph and of sorrow : spanish politics during the reign of Alfonso XII : 1874–1885|date=1979|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn=0-8093-0902-5|oclc=892239313}}</ref> initially a regency until the latter's coming of age in 1902.

The 1876 Constitution granted the Catholic Church control of education (particularly secondary education).<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38820958.pdf|page=231|year=2001|first=Juan Antonio|last=Lorenzo Vicente|journal=Revista Complutense de Educación|volume=12|issue=1|issn=1130-2496|publisher=[[Complutense University of Madrid|Ediciones Complutense]]|location=Madrid|title=Claves históricas y educativas de la Restauración y de la Segunda República (1876–1936)}}</ref> Meanwhile, an organization formed in 1876 upon a group of [[Krausism|Krausist]]s educators, the [[Institución Libre de Enseñanza]], had a leading role in the educational and cultural renovation in the country, covering for the inaction of the Spanish State.<ref>{{Cite journal|pages=7–8|title=Educación e ideología en la España del siglo XIX|last=Teodori de la Puente|first=Renata|journal=Educación|issn=1019-9403|volume=8|issue=15|year=1999|url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5056788.pdf}}</ref>

===Disaster of 1898===
[[File:Maine explosion.jpg|thumb|The explosion of the {{USS|Maine|ACR-1|6}} launched the [[Spanish–American War]] in April 1898]]
In 1868, Cuba launched a [[Ten Years' War|war of independence against Spain]]. As had been the case in Santo Domingo, the Spanish government was embroiled in a difficult campaign against an indigenous rebellion. [[Dominican Restoration War|Unlike in Santo Domingo]], however, Spain initially won this struggle. The pacification of the island was temporary, however, as the conflict [[Cuban War of Independence|revived in 1895]] and ended in defeat at the hands of the United States in the [[Spanish–American War]] of 1898. Cuba gained its independence and Spain lost its remaining New World colony, Puerto Rico, which together with Guam and the Philippines were ceded to the United States for $20&nbsp;million. In 1899, Spain sold its remaining Pacific islands – the [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Caroline Islands]] and [[Palau]] – to Germany and Spanish colonial possessions were reduced to [[Spanish Morocco]], [[Spanish Sahara]] and [[Spanish Guinea]], all in Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895–1898|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim040130024|access-date=2022-08-17|website=The SHAFR Guide Online|first=John L.|last=Offner|doi=10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim040130024}}</ref>

The "disaster" of 1898 created the [[Generation of '98]], a group of statesmen and intellectuals who demanded liberal change from the new government. However both [[anarchism]] on the left and [[fascism]] on the right grew rapidly in the early 20th century. A revolt in 1909 in [[Catalonia]] was bloodily suppressed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ramsden|first=H.|date=March 1974|title=The Spanish 'Generation of 1898': I. The history of a concept|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7227/bjrl.56.2.10|journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands Library|volume=56|issue=2|pages=463–491|doi=10.7227/bjrl.56.2.10|issn=2054-9326}}</ref> Jensen (1999) argues that the defeat of 1898 led many military officers to abandon the liberalism that had been strong in the officer corps and turn to the right. They interpreted the American victory in 1898 as well as the [[Russo-Japanese War|Japanese victory against Russia in 1905]] as proof of the superiority of willpower and moral values over technology. Over the next three decades, Jensen argues, these values shaped the outlook of [[Francisco Franco]] and other Falangists.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Geoffrey|date=October 1999|title=Moral Strength Through Material Defeat? The Consequences of 1898 for Spanish Military Culture|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/072924799791201489|journal=War & Society|volume=17|issue=2|pages=25–39|doi=10.1179/072924799791201489|pmid=22593976|issn=0729-2473}}</ref>

===Crisis of the Restoration system (1913–1931)===
The bipartisan system began to collapse in the later years of the constitutional part of the reign of [[Alfonso XIII]], with the dynastic parties largely disintegrating into factions: the conservatives faced a schism between ''[[Eduardo Dato|datistas]]'', ''[[Maurismo|mauristas]]'' and ''[[Ciervists|ciervistas]]''. The liberal camp split into the mainstream liberals followers of the [[Count of Romanones]] (''romanonistas'') and the followers of [[Manuel García Prieto]], the "democrats" (''prietistas'').{{Sfn|Martorell Linares|1997|p=146}} An additional liberal [[Santiago Alba|''albista'']] faction was later added to the last two.{{Sfn|Martorell Linares|1997|p=152}}

Spain's neutrality in World War I spared the country from carnage, yet the conflict caused massive economic disruption, with the country experiencing at the same time an economic boom (the increasing foreign demand of products and the drop of imports brought hefty profits) and widespread social distress (with mounting inflation, shortage of basic goods and extreme income inequality).{{sfn|Romero Salvadó|2010|pp=63–64}} [[1917 Spanish general strike|A major revolutionary strike]] was called for August 1917, supported by the [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]], the [[Unión General de Trabajadores|UGT]] and the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]], seeking to overthrow the government. The [[Eduardo Dato|Dato]] government deployed the army against the workers to brutally quell any threat to social order, sealing in turn the demise of the cabinet and undermining the constitutional order.{{Sfn|Romero Salvadó|2010|pp=79–80}} The strike was one of the three simultaneous developments of a wider [[Spanish crisis of 1917|three-headed crisis in 1917]] that cracked the Restoration regime, that also included a military crisis induced by the cleavage in the Armed Forces between Mainland and Africa-based ranks vis-à-vis the military promotion (and ensuing formation of ''juntas'' of officers that refused to dissolve upon request from the government),{{Sfn|Bernecker|2000|p=408}} and a political crisis brought by the challenge posed by [[Catalan nationalism]], whose bourgeois was emboldened by the economic upswing.{{Sfn|Bernecker|2000|p=409}}

During the [[Rif War]], the crushing defeat of the Spanish Army in the so-called [[Battle of Annual|"Disaster of Annual"]] in the summer of 1921 brought in a matter of days the catastrophic loss of the lives of about 9,000 Spanish soldiers and the loss of all occupied territory in Morocco that had been gained since 1912.<ref>{{Cite book|page=231|chapter=The Moroccan Quagmire and the Crisis of Spain's Liberal System, 1917–23|first=Pablo|last=La Porte|title=The Agony of Spanish Liberalism. From Revolution to Dictatorship 1913–23|editor-first=Francisco J.|editor-last=Romero Salvadó|editor-first2=Angel|editor-last2=Smith|year=2010|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-1-349-36383-4|doi=10.1057/9780230274648}}</ref> This entailed the greatest defeat suffered by a European power in an African colonial war in the 20th century.{{Sfn|Álvarez|1999|p=81}}{{dubious|date=August 2021}}

{{See also|Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera}}
[[File:14. La playa de Morro Nuevo en los días del desembarco.jpg|thumb|right|The successful [[Alhucemas landing|1925 Alhucemas landing]] turned the luck in the [[Rif War]] towards Spain's favour.]]
Alfonso XIII tacitly endorsed the September 1923 coup by General [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] that installed a dictatorship led by the latter. The regime enforced the [[Martial law|State of War]] all over the country from September 1923 to May 1925.<ref name=linz /><ref>{{Cite book|chapter=La dictadura de Primo de Rivera y el franquismo ¿un modelo a imitar de dictadura liquidacionista?|author-link=Eduardo González Calleja|first=Eduardo|last=González Calleja|title=Novísima: II Congreso Internacional de Historia de Nuestro Tiempo|year=2010|isbn=978-84-693-6557-1|page=43}}</ref> Attempts to institutionalise the regime were taken, in the form of a single official party (the [[Spanish Patriotic Union|Patriotic Union]]) and a consultative chamber (the [[National Assembly (Spain)|National Assembly]]).<ref name=linz>{{Citation|page=12|journal=Center for European Studies Working Paper|issue=101|title=Ministers and Regimes in Spain: From First to Second Restoration, 1874–2001|first=Juan J.|last=Linz|year=2003|s2cid=5287840|author-link=Juan J. Linz}}</ref>{{Sfn|Bernecker|2000|p=402}}

Preceded by a partial retreat from vulnerable posts in the interior of the protectorate in Morocco,{{Sfn|Álvarez|1999|pp=82–83}} Spain (in joint action with France) turned the tides in Morocco in 1925, and the [[Abd el-Krim]]-led [[Republic of the Rif]] started to see the beginning of its end after the [[Alhucemas landing]] and ensuing seizure of [[Ajdir]],{{Sfn|Álvarez|1999|p=97}} the heart of the Riffian rebellion. The war had dragged on since 1917 and cost Spain $800&nbsp;million.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandler|first=James A.|date=April 1975|title=Spain and Her Moroccan Protectorate 1898–1927|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002200947501000205|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=10|issue=2|pages=301–322|doi=10.1177/002200947501000205|issn=0022-0094|jstor=260149|s2cid=159817508}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Douglas|last=Porch|title=Spain's African Nightmare|journal=MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History|year=2006|volume=18|issue=2|pages=28–37}}</ref> The Spanish officers of the war ended up taking the brutality of the colonial military practices to the mainland.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://revistaayer.com/sites/default/files/articulos/76-1-Ayer76_RetaguardiaCulturaGuerra_Rodrigo.pdf|pages=42–43|title=Experiencia en combate. Continuidad y cambios en la violencia represiva (1931–1939)|first=Eduardo|last=González Calleja|author-link=Eduardo González Calleja|journal=Ayer|volume=76|year=2009|issue=4<!--|pages=37–64-->|issn=1134-2277|access-date=2021-07-30|archive-date=2021-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202095944/https://revistaayer.com/sites/default/files/articulos/76-1-Ayer76_RetaguardiaCulturaGuerra_Rodrigo.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The late 1920s were prosperous until the worldwide [[Great Depression]] hit in 1929. In early 1930 bankruptcy and massive unpopularity forced the king to remove Primo de Rivera.

{{See also|Dictablanda of Dámaso Berenguer}}
Primo de Rivera was replaced by [[Dámaso Berenguer]]'s so-called ''[[dictablanda]]''. The later ruler was in turn replaced by Admiral [[Juan Bautista Aznar-Cabañas|Aznar-Cabañas]] in February 1931, soon before the scheduled [[Spanish local elections, 1931|municipal elections of April 1931]], which were considered a plebiscite on the Monarchy. Urban voters had lost faith in the monarch and voted for republican parties. The king fled the country and a republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931.{{sfn|Carr|2008|pp= 564–591}}{{sfn||Romero Salvadó|1999|p=[{{google books |plainurl=y |id=lE5dDwAAQBAJ|page=69}} 69]}}