Editing History of Poland (section)

===Formation of modern Polish society under foreign rule (1864–1914)===

====Repression and organic work====

[[File:Prus 002.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bolesław Prus]] (1847–1912), a leading novelist, journalist and [[History of philosophy in Poland#Positivism|philosopher]] of Poland's [[Positivism in Poland|Positivism movement]]]]

The failure of the January Uprising in Poland caused a major psychological trauma and became a historic watershed; indeed, it sparked the development of modern [[Polish nationalism]]. The Poles, subjected within the territories under the Russian and Prussian administrations to still stricter controls and increased persecution, sought to preserve their identity in non-violent ways. After the uprising, Congress Poland was downgraded in official usage from the "Kingdom of Poland" to the "[[Vistula Land]]" and was more fully integrated into Russia proper, but not entirely obliterated. The [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[German language|German]] languages were imposed in all public communication, and the Catholic Church was not spared from severe repression. Public education was increasingly subjected to [[Russification]] and [[Germanisation]] measures. Illiteracy was reduced, most effectively in the Prussian partition, but education in the [[Polish language]] was preserved mostly through unofficial efforts. The Prussian government pursued German colonization, including the purchase of Polish-owned land. On the other hand, the region of [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] (western Ukraine and southern Poland) experienced a gradual relaxation of authoritarian policies and even a Polish cultural revival.  Economically and socially backward, it was under the milder rule of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Monarchy]] and from 1867 was increasingly allowed limited autonomy.<ref name="playground II xxi"/> ''Stańczycy'', a conservative Polish pro-Austrian faction led by great land owners, dominated the Galician government. The [[Polish Academy of Learning]] (an [[academy of sciences]]) was founded in Kraków in 1872.<ref name="playground II xxi"/>

Social activities termed "[[organic work]]" consisted of self-help organizations that promoted economic advancement and work on improving the competitiveness of Polish-owned businesses, industrial, agricultural or other. New commercial methods of generating higher productivity were discussed and implemented through [[trade association]]s and special interest groups, while Polish banking and cooperative financial institutions made the necessary business loans available. The other major area of effort in organic work was educational and intellectual development of the common people. Many libraries and reading rooms were established in small towns and villages, and numerous printed periodicals manifested the growing interest in popular education. Scientific and educational societies were active in a number of cities. Such activities were most pronounced in the Prussian Partition.<ref name="Lukowski 182–187"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Buszko|1986|pp=84–85}}.</ref>

[[Positivism in Poland]] replaced Romanticism as the leading intellectual, social and literary trend.<ref name="Lukowski 182–187">{{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2006|pp=182–187}}.</ref><ref name="Lukowski 192–194">{{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2006|pp=192–194}}.</ref> It reflected the ideals and values of the emerging urban [[bourgeoisie]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wereszycki|1990|pp=66–67}}.</ref> Around 1890, the urban classes gradually abandoned the positivist ideas and came under the influence of modern pan-European [[nationalism]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wereszycki|1990|pp=297–298}}.</ref>

====Economic development and social change====

[[File:Gierymski Feast of trumpets I.jpg|thumb|right|Many [[History of the Jews in Poland|Jews]] emigrated from the Polish–Lithuanian lands in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but most remained to form a large [[Minority group|ethnic minority]]]]

Under the partitioning powers, economic diversification and progress, including large-scale [[industrialisation]], were introduced in the traditionally agrarian Polish lands, but this development turned out to be very uneven. Advanced agriculture was practiced in the Prussian Partition, except for [[Upper Silesia]], where the coal-mining industry created a large labor force. The densest network of railroads was built in German-ruled western Poland. In Russian Congress Poland, a striking growth of industry, railways and towns took place, all against the background of an extensive, but less productive agriculture.<ref name="Lukowski 187–192, 199">{{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2006|pp=187–192, 199}}.</ref> The industrial initiative, capital and know-how were provided largely by entrepreneurs who were not ethnic Poles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wereszycki|1990|p=294}}.</ref> Warsaw (a metallurgical center) and [[Łódź]] (a textiles center) grew rapidly, as did the total proportion of urban population, making the region the most economically advanced in the Russian Empire (industrial production exceeded agricultural production there by 1909). The coming of the railways spurred some industrial growth even in the vast Russian Partition territories outside of Congress Poland. The Austrian Partition was rural and poor, except for the industrialized [[Cieszyn Silesia]] area. [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]]n economic expansion after 1890 included oil extraction and resulted in the growth of [[Lviv|Lemberg (Lwów, Lviv)]] and [[Kraków]].<ref name="Lukowski 187–192, 199"/>

Economic and social changes involving [[land reform]] and industrialization, combined with the effects of foreign domination, altered the centuries-old social structure of Polish society. Among the newly emergent strata were wealthy industrialists and financiers, distinct from the traditional, but still critically important landed aristocracy. The [[intelligentsia]], an educated, professional or business [[middle class]], often originated from lower gentry, landless or alienated from their rural possessions, and from urban people. Many smaller agricultural enterprises based on serfdom did not survive the land reforms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Buszko|1986|p=44}}.</ref> The industrial [[proletariat]], a new [[Privilege (social inequality)|underprivileged]] class, was composed mainly of poor peasants or townspeople forced by deteriorating conditions to migrate and search for work in urban centers in their countries of origin or abroad. Millions of residents of the former Commonwealth of various [[ethnic group]]s worked or settled in Europe and in [[North America|North]] and [[South America]].<ref name="Lukowski 187–192, 199"/>

Social and economic changes were partial and gradual. The degree of industrialisation, relatively fast-paced in some areas, lagged behind the advanced regions of [[Western Europe]]. The three partitions developed different economies and were more economically integrated with their mother states than with each other. In the Prussian Partition, for example, agricultural production depended heavily on the German market, whereas the industrial sector of Congress Poland relied more on the Russian market.<ref name="Lukowski 187–192, 199"/>

====Nationalism, socialism and other movements====
[[File:Mariecurie.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Marie Curie]], discoverer of [[Radioactive decay|radioactive elements]]]]

In the 1870s–1890s, large-scale [[socialism|socialist]], [[nationalism|nationalist]], [[agrarianism|agrarian]] and other political movements of great ideological fervor became established in partitioned Poland and Lithuania, along with corresponding political parties to promote them. Of the major parties, the socialist [[Proletariat (party)|First Proletariat]] was founded in 1882, the Polish League (precursor of [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democracy]]) in 1887, the [[Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia|Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Silesia]] in 1890, the [[Polish Socialist Party]] in 1892, the [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania]] in 1893, the agrarian People's Party of Galicia in 1895 and the Jewish socialist [[General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia|Bund]] in 1897. [[Christian democracy]] regional associations allied with the Catholic Church were also active; they united into the [[Polish Christian Democratic Party]] in 1919.

[[File:RLuxemburgCpWz.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Rosa Luxemburg]], leader of the [[Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania]]]]

The main minority ethnic groups of the former Commonwealth, including [[Ukrainians]], [[Lithuanians]], [[Belarusians]] and [[Jews]], were getting involved in their own national movements and plans, which met with disapproval on the part of those Polish independence activists who counted on an eventual rebirth of the Commonwealth or the rise of a Commonwealth-inspired federal structure (a political movement referred to as [[Prometheism]]).<ref name="Lukowski 194–203">{{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2006|pp=194–203}}.</ref>

Around the start of the 20th century, the [[Young Poland]] [[cultural movement]], centered in [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian]] Galicia, took advantage of a milieu conducive to liberal expression in that region and was the source of Poland's finest artistic and literary productions.<ref name="Lukowski 207–209">{{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2006|pp=207–209}}.</ref> In this same era, [[Marie Curie|Marie Skłodowska Curie]], a pioneer [[ionizing radiation|radiation]] scientist, performed her groundbreaking research in [[Paris]].<ref name="Lukowski 190">{{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2006|p=190}}.</ref>

====The Revolution of 1905====

[[File:Roman Dmowski in color.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Roman Dmowski]]'s [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democracy]] ideology proved highly influential in Polish politics. He favored the dominance of Polish-speaking Catholics in civic life without concern for the rights of ethnic minorities, in particular the Jews, whose emigration he advocated.]]

The [[Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–07)|Revolution of 1905–1907 in Russian Poland]],<ref name="playground II xxi"/> the result of many years of pent-up political frustrations and stifled national ambitions, was marked by political maneuvering, strikes and rebellion. The revolt was part of much broader disturbances throughout the Russian Empire associated with the general [[1905 Russian Revolution|Revolution of 1905]]. In Poland, the principal revolutionary figures were [[Roman Dmowski]] and [[Józef Piłsudski]]. Dmowski was associated with the right-wing nationalist movement [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democracy]], whereas Piłsudski was associated with the [[Polish Socialist Party]]. As the authorities re-established control within the Russian Empire, the revolt in Congress Poland, placed under martial law, withered as well, partially as a result of tsarist concessions in the areas of national and workers' rights, including Polish representation in the newly created Russian [[State Duma (Russian Empire)|Duma]]. The collapse of the revolt in the Russian Partition, coupled with intensified Germanization in the Prussian Partition, left [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Austrian Galicia]] as the territory where Polish patriotic action was most likely to flourish.<ref name="Lukowski 203–208">{{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2006|pp=203–208}}.</ref>

In the Austrian Partition, Polish culture was openly cultivated, and in the Prussian Partition, there were high levels of education and living standards, but the Russian Partition remained of primary importance for the Polish nation and its aspirations. About 15.5 million Polish-speakers lived in the territories most densely populated by Poles: the western part of the Russian Partition, the Prussian Partition and the western Austrian Partition. Ethnically Polish settlement spread over a large area further to the east, including its greatest concentration in the [[Vilnius Region]], amounted to only over 20% of that number.<ref name="Lukowski 208–216">{{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2006|pp=208–216}}.</ref>

Polish paramilitary organizations oriented toward independence, such as the [[Union of Active Struggle]], were formed in 1908–1914, mainly in Galicia. The Poles were divided and their political parties fragmented on the eve of [[World War I]], with Dmowski's National Democracy (pro-[[Allies of World War I|Entente]]) and Piłsudski's faction assuming opposing positions.<ref name="Lukowski 208–216"/><ref name="Lukowski 217–222"/>