Editing China (section)

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in China|List of Chinese discoveries|List of Chinese inventions}}

==== Historical ====
{{Main|History of science and technology in China}}
[[File:Chinese Gunpowder Formula.JPG|thumb|Earliest known written [[History of gunpowder|formula for gunpowder]], from the ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]'' of 1044 CE]]
China was a world leader in science and technology until the [[Ming dynasty]].<ref>Tom (1989), 99; Day & McNeil (1996), 122; Needham (1986e), 1–2, 40–41, 122–123, 228.</ref> Ancient and medieval [[List of Chinese discoveries|Chinese discoveries]] and [[List of Chinese inventions|inventions]], such as [[papermaking]], [[History of typography in East Asia|printing]], the [[compass]], and [[gunpowder]] (the [[Four Great Inventions]]), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use [[negative numbers#History|negative numbers]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 March 2006 |title=In Our Time: Negative Numbers |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003hyd9 |access-date=19 June 2013 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref>Struik, Dirk J. (1987). ''A Concise History of Mathematics''. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 32–33. "''In these matrices we find negative numbers, which appear here for the first time in history.''"</ref> By the 17th century, the Western World surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology |date=1996 |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |isbn=978-0-7923-3463-7 |volume=179 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jaQH6_8Ju-MC&pg=PA137 137–138]}}</ref> The causes of this early modern [[Great Divergence]] continue to be debated by scholars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frank |first=Andre |author-link=Andre Gunder Frank |date=2001 |title=Review of ''The Great Divergence'' |url=http://www.rrojasdatabank.info/agfrank/pomeranz.html |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=180–182 |doi=10.2307/2659525 |jstor=2659525}}</ref>

After [[Century of humiliation|repeated military defeats]] by the [[Eight-Nation Alliance|European colonial powers]] and [[First Sino-Japanese War|Imperial Japan]] in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]]. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the [[Soviet Union]], in which scientific research was part of central planning.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Q. Y. |title=The Implementation of China's Science and Technology Policy |date=1999 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-5672-0332-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IluWYKmTCN0C&pg=PA2 2]}}</ref> After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology were promoted as one of the [[Four Modernizations]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vogel |first=Ezra F. |title=[[Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China]] |date=2011 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-6740-5544-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3IaR-FxlA6AC&pg=PA129 129]}}</ref> and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=DeGlopper |first=Donald D. |title=China: a country study |date=1987 |publisher=Library of Congress |chapter=Soviet Influence in the 1950s |chapter-url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html}}</ref>

==== Modern era ====
Since the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]], China has made significant investments in scientific research<ref name="CWRD">{{Cite web |last=Jia |first=Hepeng |date=9 September 2014 |title=R&D share for basic research in China dwindles |url=http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2014/09/research-development-rd-share-basic-research-china-dwindles |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219044130/http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2014/09/research-development-rd-share-basic-research-china-dwindles |archive-date=19 February 2015 |access-date=21 January 2020 |website=[[Chemistry World]]}}</ref> and is quickly catching up with the U.S. [[List of sovereign states by research and development spending|in R&D spending]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Normile |first=Dennis |date=10 October 2018 |title=Surging R&D spending in China narrows gap with United States |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/surging-rd-spending-china-narrows-gap-united-states |access-date=20 February 2019 |work=[[Science (journal)|Science]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=China Has Surpassed the U.S. in R&D Spending, According to New National Academy of Arts and Sciences Report – ASME |url=https://www.asme.org/government-relations/capitol-update/china-has-surpassed-the-u-s-in-r-d-spending,-according-to-new-national-academy-of-arts-and-sciences-report |access-date=26 October 2020 |website=asme.org}}</ref> China officially spent around 2.7% of its GDP on R&D in 2024, totaling to around $496 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bela |first=Victoria |date=24 January 2025 |title=China's R&D growth passes US$496 billion in steady rise to hi-tech dominance |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3296098/chinas-rd-growth-passes-us496-billion-steady-rise-hi-tech-dominance |access-date=24 January 2025 |work=[[South China Morning Post]]}}</ref> According to the [[World Intellectual Property Indicators]], China received more applications than the U.S. did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021.<ref name="Dutta-2021">{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4560 |title=Global Innovation Index 2021: Tracking Innovation Through the COVID-19 Crisis |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |last3=Wunsch-Vincent |first3=Sacha |last4=León |first4=Lorena Rivera |last5=World Intellectual Property Organization |date=2021 |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |isbn=978-9-2805-3249-4 |edition=14th |doi=10.34667/tind.44315}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Intellectual Property Indicators: Filings for Patents, Trademarks, Industrial Designs Reach Record Heights in 2018 |url=https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2019/article_0012.html |access-date=10 May 2020 |website=wipo.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=China Becomes Top Filer of International Patents in 2019 |url=https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2020/article_0005.html |access-date=26 October 2020 |website=wipo.int}}</ref> It was ranked 11th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2024, a considerable improvement from its rank of 35th in 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2024 : Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2022: What Is the Future of Innovation Driven Growth? |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |last3=Wunsch-Vincent |first3=Sacha |last4=León |first4=Lorena Rivera |last5=World Intellectual Property Organization |date=2022 |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |isbn=978-9-2805-3432-0 |edition=15th |series=[[Global Innovation Index]] |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |access-date=29 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 October 2013 |title=Global Innovation Index |url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930 |archive-date=2 September 2021 |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=INSEAD Knowledge}}</ref> [[Supercomputing in China|Chinese supercomputers]] ranked among the [[TOP500|fastest in the world]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 June 2013 |title=China retakes supercomputer crown |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-22936989 |access-date=18 June 2013 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>{{efn|Some of the chips used were not domestically developed until [[Sunway TaihuLight]] in 2016. China [[TOP500#Large machines not on the list|has not submitted]] newer entries to TOP500 amid tensions with the United States.}} Its efforts to develop the most advanced semiconductors and jet engines have seen delays and setbacks.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zhu |first=Julie |date=14 December 2022 |title=Exclusive: China readying $143 billion package for its chip firms in face of U.S. curbs |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/china-plans-over-143-bln-push-boost-domestic-chips-compete-with-us-sources-2022-12-13 |access-date=23 December 2022 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Day |first=Lewin |date=28 July 2020 |title=80 Years From Invention, China Is Struggling With Jet Engines |url=https://hackaday.com/2020/07/28/80-years-from-invention-china-is-struggling-with-jet-engines |publisher=HackADay Insider}}</ref>

China is developing [[Education in China|its education system]] with an emphasis on [[science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]] (STEM).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Colvin |first=Geoff |date=29 July 2010 |title=Desperately seeking math and science majors |url=https://money.cnn.com/2010/07/29/news/international/china_engineering_grads.fortune/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017232727/https://money.cnn.com/2010/07/29/news/international/china_engineering_grads.fortune/index.htm |archive-date=17 October 2010 |access-date=9 April 2012 |work=[[CNN Business]]}}</ref> [[Academic publishing in China|Its academic publication apparatus]] became the world's [[List of countries by number of scientific and technical journal articles|largest publisher of scientific papers]] in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Orszag |first=Peter R. |date=12 September 2018 |title=China is Overtaking the U.S. in Scientific Research |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/amp/opinion/articles/2018-09-12/chinese-researchers-are-outperforming-americans-in-science |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220183147/https://www.bloomberg.com/amp/opinion/articles/2018-09-12/chinese-researchers-are-outperforming-americans-in-science |archive-date=20 February 2019 |access-date=19 February 2019 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tollefson |first=Jeff |date=18 January 2018 |title=China declared world's largest producer of scientific articles |journal=Nature |volume=553 |issue=7689 |page=390 |bibcode=2018Natur.553..390T |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-00927-4 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Koshikawa |first=Noriaki |date=8 August 2020 |title=China passes US as world's top researcher, showing its R&D might |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Science/China-passes-US-as-world-s-top-researcher-showing-its-R-D-might |access-date=8 June 2022 |work=[[Nikkei Asia]]}}</ref> In 2022, China overtook the US in the [[Nature Index]], which measures the share of published articles in leading scientific journals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baker |first=Simon |date=19 May 2023 |title=China overtakes United States on contribution to research in Nature Index |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01705-7 |journal=Nature |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-023-01705-7 |pmid=37208516}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hawkins |first=Amy |date=24 May 2023 |title=China overtakes US in contributions to nature and science journals |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/24/china-overtakes-us-in-contributions-to-nature-and-science-journals |access-date=23 September 2024 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

===== Space program =====
{{Main|Chinese space program}}
[[File:Launch of Shenzhou 13.jpg|thumb|upright|Launch of [[Shenzhou 13]] by a [[Long March 2F]] rocket. China is one of the only three countries with independent [[human spaceflight]] capability.]]
The Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with the [[Dong Fang Hong I]], which made China the fifth country to do so independently.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Long |first=Wei |date=25 April 2000 |title=China Celebrates 30th Anniversary of First Satellite Launch |url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/china-00u.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515110247/http%3A//www.spacedaily.com/news/china%2D00u.html |archive-date=15 May 2016 |publisher=Space daily}}</ref>

In 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space with [[Yang Liwei]]'s spaceflight aboard [[Shenzhou 5]]. As of 2023, [[List of Chinese astronauts|eighteen Chinese nationals]] have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first space station testbed, [[Tiangong-1]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |date=29 September 2011 |title=Rocket launches Chinese space lab |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15112760 |access-date=20 May 2012 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> In 2013, a Chinese robotic rover ''[[Yutu (rover)|Yutu]]'' successfully touched down on the lunar surface as part of the [[Chang'e 3]] mission.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rincon |first=Paul |date=14 December 2013 |title=China lands Jade Rabbit robot rover on Moon |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25356603 |access-date=26 July 2014 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—[[Chang'e 4]]—on the [[far side of the Moon]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lyons |first=Kate |title=Chang'e 4 landing: China probe makes historic touchdown on far side of the moon |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/03/china-probe-change-4-land-far-side-moon-basin-crater |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103043232/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/03/china-probe-change-4-land-far-side-moon-basin-crater |archive-date=3 January 2019 |access-date=3 January 2019 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> In 2020, [[Chang'e 5]] successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 December 2020 |title=Moon rock samples brought to Earth for first time in 44 years |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/Spacebound/2020/1217/Moon-rock-samples-brought-to-Earth-for-first-time-in-44-years |access-date=23 February 2021 |work=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref> In 2021, China became the third country to land a spacecraft on Mars and the second one to deploy a [[Zhurong (rover)|rover (''Zhurong'')]] on Mars.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2021 |title=China succeeds on country's first Mars landing attempt with Tianwen-1 |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/china-first-mars-landing-attempt-tianwen-1 |access-date=15 May 2021 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com}}</ref> China completed its own modular [[space station]], the [[Tiangong space station|Tiangong]], in [[low Earth orbit]] on 3 November 2022.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1587984835808665600 |user=CNSpaceflight |title=Official completion time of #Mengtian relocation is 01:32UTC |author=China 'N Asia Spaceflight |date=3 November 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Skibba |first=Ramin |title=China Is Now a Major Space Power |url=https://www.wired.com/story/china-is-now-a-major-space-power-tiangong-space-station/ |access-date=4 November 2022 |magazine=Wired}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Celestial second fiddle no more, China completes its space station |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/11/05/china-space-station-tiangong/ |access-date=24 November 2022 |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref> On 29 November 2022, China performed its first in-orbit crew handover aboard the ''Tiangong''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chinese astronauts meet in space for historic crew handover |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2022/11/29/chinese-astronauts-meet-in-space-for-historic-crew-handover |access-date=16 December 2022 |publisher=Spaceflight Now}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Woo |first1=Ryan |last2=Liangping |first2=Gao |date=30 November 2022 |title=Chinese astronauts board space station in historic mission |url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/china-launches-crewed-spacecraft-chinese-space-station-state-television-2022-11-29/#:~:text=Shenzhou%2D15%20was%20the%20last,was%20launched%20in%20April%202021. |access-date=16 December 2022 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>

In May 2023, China announced a plan to [[Moon landing|land humans on the Moon]] by 2030.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wang |first=Vivian |date=29 May 2023 |title=China Announces Plan to Land Astronauts on Moon by 2030 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/29/world/asia/china-space-moon-2030.html |work=The New York Times}}</ref> To that end, China has been developing a lunar-capable super-heavy launcher, the [[Long March 10]], a new [[next-generation crewed spacecraft|crewed spacecraft]], and a [[Chinese crewed lunar lander|crewed lunar lander]].<ref name="AJ-06Mar2022">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |date=6 March 2022 |title=China wants its new rocket for astronaut launches to be reusable |url=https://www.space.com/china-reusable-rockets-for-astronaut-launches |access-date=5 October 2023 |website=[[Space.com]]}}</ref><ref name="AJ17072023">{{Cite news |last=Jones |first=Andrew |date=17 July 2023 |title=China sets out preliminary crewed lunar landing plan |url=https://spacenews.com/china-sets-out-preliminary-crewed-lunar-landing-plan |access-date=24 July 2023 |work=spacenews.com}}</ref>

China sent [[Chang'e 6]] on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return from [[Apollo (crater)|Apollo Basin]] on the [[far side of the Moon]].<ref name="AJ_FI-20230425">{{Cite tweet |number=1650832520978526208 |user=AJ_FI |title=China's Chang'e-6 sample return mission (a first ever lunar far side sample-return) is scheduled to launch in May 2024, and expected to take 53 days from launch to return module touchdown. Targeting southern area of Apollo basin (~43º S, 154º W) |first=Andrew |last=Jones |date=25 April 2023}}</ref> This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved by [[Chang'e 5]] from the lunar near side 4 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |date=10 January 2024 |title=China's Chang'e-6 probe arrives at spaceport for first-ever lunar far side sample mission |url=https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-probe-arrives-at-spaceport-for-first-ever-lunar-far-side-sample-mission |access-date=10 January 2024 |website=[[SpaceNews]]}}</ref> It also carried a Chinese rover called ''Jinchan'' to conduct [[Absorption spectroscopy|infrared spectroscopy]] of lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |date=6 May 2024 |title=China's Chang'e-6 is carrying a surprise rover to the moon |url=https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-is-carrying-a-surprise-rover-to-the-moon |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508193233/https://spacenews.com/chinas-change-6-is-carrying-a-surprise-rover-to-the-moon |archive-date=8 May 2024 |access-date=8 May 2024 |website=SpaceNews}}</ref> The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024, at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.<ref name="AJ_FI-20240601">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |date=1 June 2024 |title=Chang'e-6 lands on far side of the moon to collect unique lunar samples |url=https://spacenews.com/change-6-lands-on-far-side-of-the-moon-to-collect-unique-lunar-samples |access-date=1 June 2024 |website=[[SpaceNews]]}}</ref><ref name="segeryu240602">{{Cite tweet |number=1797042217804337307 |user=SegerYu |title=落月时刻 2024-06-02 06:23:15.861 |first=Seger |last=Yu |language=zh}}</ref> The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024, at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, which later completed another robotic rendezvous, before docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed on [[Inner Mongolia]] in June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission.