Editing Ship (section)

==Ship pollution==
Ship [[pollution]] is the pollution of air and water by [[shipping]]. It is a problem that has been accelerating as trade has become increasingly globalized, posing an increasing threat to the world's oceans and waterways as [[globalization]] continues. It is expected that "shipping traffic to and from the United States is projected to double by 2020."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Watson |first=T. |date=30 August 2004 |title=Ship pollution clouds USA's skies  |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2004-08-30-ship-pollution_x.htm |website=USAtoday.com |access-date=November 1, 2006}}</ref> Because of increased traffic in ocean [[port]]s, pollution from ships also directly affects coastal areas. The pollution produced affects [[biodiversity]], climate, food, and human health. However, the degree to which humans are polluting and how it affects the world is highly debated and has been a hot international topic for the past 30&nbsp;years.

===Oil spills===
{{Main|Oil spill}}
[[File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg|thumb|right| The tanker [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|''Exxon Valdez'' spilled]] {{convert|10800000|USgal|impgal L|sigfig=4}} of oil into Alaska's [[Prince William Sound]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently asked questions about the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill |url=http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/History/FAQ.htm |publisher=State of Alaska |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925163639/http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/History/FAQ.htm |archive-date=2006-09-25}}</ref>]]
Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the [[sediment]] and marine environment.<ref name="Panetta" /> Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles.

By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers must be considered something of a threat to the environment. An oil tanker can carry {{convert|2|Moilbbl|m3|sigfig=4}} of crude oil, or {{convert|84000000|USgal|impgal L|sigfig=4}}<!-- See [[Talk:ship#conversions]] -->. This is more than six times the amount spilled in the widely known [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|''Exxon Valdez'' incident]]. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped {{convert|10800000|USgal|impgal L|sigfig=4}} of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers, over 400,000 [[seabirds]], about 1,000 [[sea otters]], and immense numbers of fish were killed.<ref name="Panetta" />

The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has researched 9,351 accidental spills since 1974.<ref name="itopf" /> According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil.<ref name="itopf" />  91% of the operational oil spills were small, resulting in less than 7&nbsp;tons per spill.<ref name="itopf" /> Spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700&nbsp;tons.<ref name="itopf" />

Following the ''Exxon Valdez'' spill, the United States passed the [[Oil Pollution Act of 1990]] (OPA-90), which included a stipulation that all tankers entering its waters be [[Double-hulled tanker|double-hulled]] by 2015. Following the sinkings of ''[[Erika (tanker)|Erika]]'' (1999) and ''[[Prestige oil spill|Prestige]]'' (2002), the [[European Union]] passed its own stringent anti-pollution packages (known as Erika I, II, and III), which require all tankers entering its waters to be double-hulled by 2010. The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of "serious negligence".<ref name="EuroP" />

===Ballast water===
{{Main|Ballast water discharge and the environment}}
[[File:Ship pumping ballast water.jpg|thumb|upright|A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side]]
When a large vessel such as a [[container ship]] or an oil tanker unloads cargo, seawater is pumped into other compartments in the hull to help stabilize and balance the ship. During loading, this ballast water is pumped out from these compartments.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-22397076|title=Scientists map global routes of ship-borne invasive species|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=4 May 2015|date=2013-05-05|last1=McGrath|first1=Matt}}</ref>

One of the problems with ballast water transfer is the transport of harmful organisms. Meinesz<ref name="Meinesz" /> believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless [[plankton]]ic organism . ''[[Mnemiopsis leidyi]]'', a species of [[comb jelly]] that inhabits estuaries from the United States to the Valdés peninsula in [[Argentina]] along the [[Atlantic]] coast, has caused notable damage in the [[Black Sea]]. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ship's ballast water. The population of the comb jelly shot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local [[fishing]] industry. "The [[anchovy]] catch fell from {{convert|204000|t|ST LT|sigfig=3|lk=on}} in 1984 to {{convert|200|t|ST LT|sigfig=3}} in 1993; sprat from {{convert|24600|t|ST LT|sigfig=3}} in 1984 to {{convert|12000|t|ST LT|sigfig=3}} in 1993; [[horse mackerel (disambiguation)|horse mackerel]] from {{convert|4000|t|ST LT|sigfig=3}} in 1984 to zero in 1993."<ref name="Meinesz" /> Now that the comb jellies have exhausted the [[zooplankton]], including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the [[ecosystem]]. Recently the comb jellies have been discovered in the [[Caspian Sea]]. Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new [[diseases]], introduce new [[Genetics|genetic]] material, alter landscapes and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. "On land and in the sea, invasive species are responsible for about 137&nbsp;billion dollars in lost revenue and management costs in the U.S. each year."<ref name="Panetta" />

Ballast and [[bilge]] discharge from ships can also spread human [[pathogens]] and other harmful diseases and [[toxins]] potentially causing health issues for humans and marine life alike.<ref>National Research Council, Committee on the Ocean's Role in Human Health, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources. (1999). ''From monsoons to microbes: understanding the ocean's role in human health''. Washington, DC: National Academy Press</ref> Discharges into coastal waters, along with other sources of marine pollution, have the potential to be toxic to marine plants, animals, and [[microorganisms]], causing alterations such as changes in growth, disruption of [[hormone]] cycles, birth defects, suppression of the [[immune system]], and disorders resulting in [[cancer]], [[tumors]], and genetic abnormalities or even death.<ref name="Panetta" />

===Exhaust emissions===
[[File:K-stack.jpg|thumb|upright|Exhaust stack on a container ship.]]
[[exhaust gas|Exhaust]] emissions from ships are considered to be a significant source of [[air pollution]]. "Seagoing vessels are responsible for an estimated 14 percent of emissions of nitrogen from fossil fuels and 16 percent of the emissions of sulfur from petroleum uses into the atmosphere."<ref name="Panetta" /> In Europe ships make up a large percentage of the sulfur introduced to the air, "as much sulfur as all the cars, [[Truck|lorries]] and factories in Europe put together".<ref name="Harrabin" /> "By 2010, up to 40% of air pollution over land could come from ships."<ref name="Harrabin" /> Sulfur in the air creates [[acid rain]] which damages crops and buildings. When inhaled, sulfur is known to cause [[respiratory]] problems and increase the risk of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]].<ref name="Harrabin" />

===Ship breaking===
{{Main|Ship breaking}}
'''Ship breaking''' or '''ship demolition''' is a type of [[ship disposal]] involving the breaking up of ships for [[scrap]] [[recycling]], with the hulls being discarded in [[ship graveyard]]s. Most ships have a lifespan of a few decades before there is so much wear that refitting and repair becomes uneconomical. Ship breaking allows materials from the ship, especially steel, to be reused.

[[File:Shipbreakingbangladesh2.jpg|thumb|Ship breaking near [[Chittagong]], [[Bangladesh]]]]
In addition to steel and other useful materials, however, ships (particularly older vessels) can contain many substances that are banned or considered dangerous in [[developed countries]]. [[Asbestos]] and [[polychlorinated biphenyls]] (PCBs) are typical examples. Asbestos was used heavily in ship construction until it was finally banned in most of the developed world in the mid-1980s. Currently, the costs associated with removing asbestos, along with the potentially expensive insurance and health risks, have meant that ship-breaking in most developed countries is no longer economically viable. Removing the metal for scrap can potentially cost more than the scrap value of the metal itself. In most of the developing world, however, shipyards can operate without the risk of [[Personal injury|personal injury lawsuits]] or [[Workers' compensation|workers' health claims]], meaning many of these shipyards may operate with high health risks. Furthermore, workers are paid very low rates with no overtime or other allowances. Protective equipment is sometimes absent or inadequate. Dangerous vapors and fumes from burning materials can be inhaled, and dusty asbestos-laden areas around such breakdown locations are commonplace.

Aside from the health of the yard workers, in recent years, ship breaking has also become an issue of major [[environmentalism|environmental concern]]. Many developing nations, in which ship breaking yards are located, have lax or no [[environmental law]], enabling large quantities of highly toxic materials to escape into the environment and causing serious health problems among ship breakers, the local population and wildlife. Environmental campaign groups such as [[Greenpeace]] have made the issue a high priority for their campaigns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenpeaceweb.org/shipbreak/ |title=Shipbreaking |publisher=Greenpeace |date=March 16, 2006 |access-date=2007-08-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20021012054547/http://www.greenpeaceweb.org/shipbreak/ |archive-date=October 12, 2002}}</ref>