Editing Sexism (section)

== Examples ==
=== Child and forced marriage ===

{{Main|Child marriage|Forced marriage}}
{{Further|Dowry|Bride price}}
[[File:Girl Summit - 22nd July in London (14498368279).jpg|thumb|alt=Poster against child and forced marriage| Poster against child and forced marriage]]

A child marriage is a marriage where one or both spouses are under 18, a practice that disproportionately affects women.<ref name="UNICEF 2014">{{cite web |date=October 22, 2014 |title=Child marriage |url=http://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58008.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907061839/https://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58008.html |archive-date=September 7, 2018 |access-date=September 24, 2013 |website=UNICEF}}</ref><ref name="HRW 2013">{{cite web |date=June 14, 2013 |title=Q & A: Child Marriage and Violations of Girls' Rights—Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/14/q-child-marriage-and-violations-girls-rights |access-date=March 31, 2015 |website=Hrw.org}}</ref> Child marriages are most common in South Asia, the [[Middle East]] and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], but occur in other parts of the world, too. The practice of marrying young girls is rooted in patriarchal ideologies of control of female behavior and is also sustained by traditional practices such as dowry and bride price.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dowry and abuse still a problem in India |url=http://www.port.ac.uk/uopnews/2013/11/19/dowry-and-abuse-still-a-problem-in-india/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222181509/http://www.port.ac.uk/uopnews/2013/11/19/dowry-and-abuse-still-a-problem-in-india/ |archive-date=February 22, 2015 |access-date=February 22, 2015}}</ref> Child marriage is strongly connected with protecting female [[virginity]].<ref name="Forced Early Marriage">{{cite web |date=n.d. |title=Article 16: Right to marriage and family and to equal rights of men and women during and after marriage {{!}} Case Study: Forced Early Marriage |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/people/features/ihavearightto/four_b/casestudy_art16.shtml |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=BBC World Service}}</ref> UNICEF states that:<ref name="UNICEF 2014" />
<blockquote>Marrying girls under 18 years old is rooted in [[gender discrimination]], encouraging premature and continuous child bearing and giving preference to boys' education. Child marriage is also a strategy for economic survival as families marry off their daughters at an early age to reduce their economic burden.</blockquote>

Consequences of child marriage include restricted education and employment prospects, increased risk of domestic violence, [[child sexual abuse]], pregnancy and birth complications, and [[social isolation]].<ref name="HRW 2013" /><ref name="Forced Early Marriage" /> Early and forced marriage are defined as forms of modern-day slavery by the [[International Labour Organization]].<ref>{{cite news |date=September 9, 2013 |title=Nigeria's child brides: 'I thought being in labour would never end' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/sep/02/nigeria-child-brides-religion |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> In some cases, a woman or girl who has been raped may be forced to marry her rapist to restore the honor of her family;<ref name="whqlibdoc.who.int" /><ref>{{cite news |date=2012-03-15 |title=BBC News—Morocco protest after raped Amina Filali kills herself |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-17379721 |access-date=2015-03-31}}</ref> [[marriage by abduction]], a practice in which a man abducts the woman or girl whom he wishes to marry and rapes her to force the marriage is common in [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{cite news |date=June 18, 1999 |title=Ethiopia: Revenge of the abducted bride |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/371944.stm |access-date=March 31, 2015 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=February 23, 2007 |title=IRIN Africa—Ethiopia: Surviving forced marriage—Ethiopia—Children—Gender Issues |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/69993/ethiopia-surviving-forced-marriage |website=IRINnews}}</ref><ref>Pathfinder International/Ethiopia (2006) Report on causes and consequences of early marriage in Amhara region. Retrieved April 18, 2015 from {{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.pathfinder.org/publications-tools/pdfs/Causes-and-Consequesnces-of-Early-Marriage-in-the-Amhara-Region-of-Ethiopia.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323124732/http://www.pathfinder.org/publications-tools/pdfs/Causes-and-Consequesnces-of-Early-Marriage-in-the-Amhara-Region-of-Ethiopia.pdf |archive-date=March 23, 2013 |access-date=December 3, 2013}}</ref>

=== Dating ===
In case of heterosexual [[dating]], sexist [[social norm]]s are widespread, such as men asking women out on dates or men [[marriage proposal|proposing marriage]] while women avoid showing overt [[Agency (psychology)|initiate]].<ref name="d673">{{cite journal | last1=Samardzic | first1=Tanja | last2=Barata | first2=Paula C. | last3=Morton | first3=Mavis | last4=Yen | first4=Jeffery | title="It Doesn't Feel Like You Can Win": Young Women's Talk About Heterosexual Relationships | journal=Psychology of Women Quarterly | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=47 | issue=1 | date=13 November 2022 | issn=0361-6843 | doi=10.1177/03616843221135571 | doi-access=free | pages=127–143| pmid=36742155 | pmc=9893301 }}</ref> Some women reject gender [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] dating norms, such as women asking men out on dates, due to fear of [[Social rejection#Romantic rejection|rejection]] and [[Ambivalent sexism|benevolent sexism]].<ref name="p358">{{cite journal | last=Lamont | first=Ellen | title=Negotiating Courtship | journal=Gender & Society | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=28 | issue=2 | date=23 September 2013 | issn=0891-2432 | doi=10.1177/0891243213503899 | pages=189–211}}</ref>

=== Domestic violence ===
{{Further|Honor killing|Acid throwing|Dowry death}}
[[File:Acid attack victim.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Portrait of a female acid attack victim showing facial injuries | Acid attack victim in [[Cambodia]]]]

Although the exact rates are widely disputed, there is a large body of cross-cultural evidence that [[domestic violence]] is mostly committed by men against women.<ref name="Dobash 1992">{{cite journal |last1=Dobash |first1=R. P. |last2=Dobash |first2=R. E. |last3=Wilson |first3=M. |last4=Daly |first4=M. |title=The Myth of Sexual Symmetry in Marital Violence |journal=[[Social Problems]] |volume=39 |pages=71–91 |year=1992 |doi=10.1525/sp.1992.39.1.03x0064l}}</ref><ref name="Compton 2010">{{cite book |last=Compton |first=Michael T. |title=Clinical Manual of Prevention in Mental Health |year=2010 |publisher=[[American Psychiatric Publishing]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-58562-347-1 |page=245 |edition=1st |quote=Women are more often the victims of domestic violence than men and are more likely to suffer injuries and health consequences{{nbsp}}...}}</ref><ref name="Brinkerhoff 2008">{{cite book |last=Brinkerhoff |first=David B. |author2=Lynn K. White |author3=Suzanne T. Ortega |author4=Rose Weitz |title=Essentials of Sociology |year=2008 |publisher=[[Thomson/Wadsworth]] |isbn=978-0-495-09636-8 |page=13 |edition=7th |quote=A conflict analysis of domestic violence, for example, would begin by noting that women are battered far more often and far more severely than are men{{nbsp}}...}}</ref> In addition, there is a broad consensus that women are more often subjected to severe forms of abuse and are more likely to be injured by an abusive partner.<ref name="Compton 2010" /><ref name="Brinkerhoff 2008" /> The United Nations recognizes domestic violence as a form of [[gender-based violence]], which it describes as a [[human rights]] violation, and the result of sexism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm |date=20 December 1993 |title=A/RES/48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women |publisher=United Nations General Assembly |access-date=March 16, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404072416/https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm |archive-date=Apr 4, 2015}}</ref>

Domestic violence is tolerated and even legally accepted in many parts of the world. For instance, in 2010, the [[United Arab Emirates]] (UAE)'s Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to discipline his wife and children physically if he does not leave visible marks.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-19/world/uae.court.ruling_1_islamic-law-sharia-law-ruling?_s=PM:WORLD |title=Court in UAE says beating wife, child OK if no marks are left |work=CNN |access-date=July 20, 2013 |date=October 19, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325143850/http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-19/world/uae.court.ruling_1_islamic-law-sharia-law-ruling?_s=PM%3AWORLD |archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref> In 2015, [[Equality Now]] drew attention to a section of the Penal Code of Northern Nigeria, titled ''Correction of Child, Pupil, Servant or Wife'' which reads: "(1) Nothing is an offence which does not amount to the infliction of grievous hurt upon any persons which is done:&nbsp;(...) (d) by a husband for the purpose of correcting his wife, such husband and wife being subject to any native law or custom in which such correction is recognized as lawful."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.equalitynow.org/law/the_penal_code_of_northern_nigeria |title=The Penal Code of Northern Nigeria |publisher=Equalitynow.org |date=February 6, 2015 |access-date=March 31, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402123608/http://www.equalitynow.org/law/the_penal_code_of_northern_nigeria |archive-date=April 2, 2015}}</ref>

[[Honor killings]] are another form of domestic violence practiced in several parts of the world, and their victims are predominantly women.<ref name="Maris 2001">{{cite journal |last=Maris |first=Cees |author2=Sawitri Saharso |title=Honour Killing: A Case for Cultural Defense? |journal=Pluralism and Law: Proceedings of the 20th IVR World Congress, Amsterdam, 2001 |year=2001 |volume=3 |page=108}}</ref> Honor killings can occur because of refusal to enter into an arranged marriage, maintaining a relationship relatives disapprove of, extramarital sex, becoming the victim of rape, dress seen as inappropriate, or homosexuality.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml#h3 |title=Ethics—Honour crimes |website=BBC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223212110/https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml#h3 |archive-date= Feb 23, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/13/world/europe/turkey-gay-killing |work=CNN |title=Shocking gay honor killing inspires movie |first1=Ivan |last1=Watson |date=January 13, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=  https://web.archive.org/web/20230604210723/https://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/13/world/europe/turkey-gay-killing/ |archive-date= Jun 4, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/CRIME/02/23/arizona.iraqi.father/index.html |work=CNN |title=Iraqi immigrant convicted in Arizona 'honor killing' awaits sentence |date=February 23, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922084250/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/CRIME/02/23/arizona.iraqi.father/index.html |archive-date= Sep 22, 2022 }}</ref> The [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] states that, "[h]onour crimes, including killing, are one of history's oldest forms of gender-based violence".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/hb_eff_police_responses.pdf |title=Handbook on Effective police responses to violence against women |date=2010 |website=UNODC |access-date=December 4, 2019}}</ref>

According to a report of the Special Rapporteur submitted to the 58th session of the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]] concerning cultural practices in the family that reflect violence against women:
<blockquote>The Special Rapporteur indicated that there had been contradictory decisions with regard to the honor defense in [[Brazil]], and that legislative provisions allowing for partial or complete defense in that context could be found in the penal codes of Argentina, Ecuador, Egypt, Guatemala, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Peru, Syria, Venezuela, and the [[Palestinian National Authority]].<ref name="UN Secretary-General 2002">''Working towards the elimination of crimes against women committed in the name of honour: Report of the Secretary-General''. July 2, 2002. United Nations General Assembly.</ref></blockquote>

Practices such as honor killings and stoning continue to be supported by mainstream politicians and other officials in some countries. In Pakistan, after the 2008 [[Honour killing in Pakistan|Balochistan honor killings]] in which five women were killed by tribesmen of the [[Umrani|Umrani Tribe]] of [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]], Pakistani federal minister for Postal Services [[Israr Ullah Zehri]] defended the practice:<ref name="Hussain 2008">{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4678530.ece |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110430103927/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4678530.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 30, 2011 |title=Three teenagers buried alive in 'honour killings' |access-date=September 5, 2008 |work=[[Times Online]] |location=London |first=Zahid |last=Hussain |date=September 5, 2008}}{{subscription required}}</ref> "These are centuries-old traditions, and I will continue to defend them. Only those who indulge in immoral acts should be afraid."<ref name="Telegraph 2008">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/2660881/Pakistani-women-buried-alive-for-choosing-husbands.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/2660881/Pakistani-women-buried-alive-for-choosing-husbands.html |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Pakistani women buried alive 'for choosing husbands' |access-date=September 1, 2008 |work=Telegraph |location=London |date=September 1, 2008}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Following the 2006 case of [[Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani]] (which has placed Iran under international pressure for its stoning sentences), [[Mohammad-Javad Larijani]], a senior envoy and chief of Iran's Human Rights Council, defended the practice of stoning; he claimed it was a "lesser punishment" than [[Capital punishment|execution]], because it allowed those convicted a chance at survival.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/outrage-iran-human-rights-officials-defense-stoning/story?id=12193085#.UE4Qi64Zh0I |title=Outrage Over Iran Human Rights Official's Defense of Stoning |publisher=ABC News |date=November 19, 2010 |access-date=July 20, 2013}}</ref>

[[Dowry deaths]] result from the killing of women who are unable to pay the high dowry price for their marriage. According to [[Amnesty International]], "the ongoing reality of dowry-related violence is an example of what can happen when women are treated as property".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/women-s-rights/violence-against-women/violence-against-women-information |title=Violence Against Women Information |website=Amnesty International USA}}</ref>

=== Education ===

{{Main|Sex differences in education|Sexism in academia}}

Women have traditionally had limited access to higher education.<ref>{{cite book |last=Solomon |first=Barbara Miller |url=https://archive.org/details/incompanyofeduca00solo |title=In the Company of Educated Women |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-300-03314-4 |location=New Haven}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=April 2018}} In the past, when women were admitted to higher education, they were encouraged to major in less-scientific subjects; the study of [[English literature]] in American and British colleges and universities was instituted as a field considered suitable to women's "lesser intellects".<ref>{{cite book |last=Eagleton |first=Terry |url=https://archive.org/details/literarytheoryin00eagl |title=Literary Theory |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-8166-1241-3 |location=Minneapolis |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=April 2018}}

Educational specialties in higher education produce and perpetuate inequality between men and women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ecklund |first1=Elaine Howard |last2=Lincoln |first2=Anne E. |last3=Tansey |first3=Cassandra |year=2012 |title=Gender Segregation in Elite Academic Science |url=https://www.nsf.gov/career-life-balance/Gender%20Segregation%20in%20Elite%20Academic%20Science_Sage%20Pub_2012.pdf |journal=Gender & Society |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=693–717 |doi=10.1177/0891243212451904 |s2cid=146588435}}</ref> Disparity persists particularly in computer and [[information science]], where in the US women received only 21% of the undergraduate degrees, and in engineering, where women obtained only 19% of the degrees in 2008.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=M. |last2=Sonnert |first2=G. |last3=Nikiforova |first3=I. |year=2011 |title=Programs for Undergraduate Women in Science and Engineering: Issues, Problems, and Solutions |journal=Gender and Society |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=589–615 [p. 590] |doi=10.1177/0891243211416809 |s2cid=145693091}}</ref> Only one out of five of physics doctorates in the US are awarded to women, and only about half those women are American.<ref name="Pollack 2013">{{cite news |last=Pollack |first=E. |date=2013 |title=Why are there still so few women in science? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/06/magazine/why-are-there-still-so-few-women-in-science.html |access-date=April 18, 2015 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> Of all the physics professors in the country, only 14% are women.<ref name="Pollack 2013" /> As of 2019, women account for just 27% of all workers in [[STEM]] fields, and on average earn almost 20% less than men in the same industries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.catalyst.org/research/women-in-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-stem/|title=Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) (Quick Take)|date=November 13, 2024 }}</ref>

World [[literacy#Gender disparities|literacy]] is lower for females than for males. Data from ''[[The World Factbook]]'' shows that 79.7% of women are literate, compared to 88.6% of men (aged 15 and over).<ref>{{cite web |date=November 10, 2021 |title=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/ |website=cia.gov}}</ref> In some parts of the world, girls continue to be excluded from proper public or private education. In parts of Afghanistan, girls who go to school face serious violence from some local community members and religious groups.<ref name="Torgan 2012">{{cite news |last=Torgan |first=Allie |date=August 2, 2012 |title=Acid attacks, poison: What Afghan girls risk by going to school |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/02/world/meast/cnnheroes-jan-afghan-school/index.html |access-date=18 Feb 2024 |work=CNN}}</ref> According to 2010 UN estimates, only Afghanistan, Pakistan and Yemen had less than 90 girls per 100 boys at school.<ref>{{cite news |date=2013 |title=Making Room for Girls |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2013/11/gender-inequality}}</ref> Jayachandran and [[Adriana Lleras-Muney|Lleras-Muney's]] study of Sri Lankan economic development has suggested that increases in the life expectancy for women encourages educational investment because a longer time horizon increases the value of investments that pay out over time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jayachandran |first1=Seema |last2=Lleras-Muney |first2=Adriana |author2-link=Adriana Lleras-Muney |year=2009 |title=Life Expectancy and Human Capital Investments: Evidence from Maternal Mortality Declines |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w13947.pdf |journal=[[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |volume=124 |issue=1 |pages=349–397 |doi=10.1162/qjec.2009.124.1.349 |s2cid=13244502}}</ref>

Educational opportunities and outcomes for women have greatly improved in the West. Since 1991, the proportion of women enrolled in college in the United States has exceeded the enrollment rate for men, and the gap has widened over time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Postsecondary Participation Rates by Sex and Race/Ethnicity: 1974–2003 |url=http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2005/2005028.pdf |access-date=December 4, 2019 |website=nces.ed.gov}}</ref> {{as of|2007}}, women made up the majority—54%—of the 10.8&nbsp;million college students enrolled in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Crossover in Female-Male College Enrollment Rates |url=http://www.prb.org/Articles/2007/CrossoverinFemaleMaleCollegeEnrollmentRates.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527135418/http://www.prb.org/Articles/2007/CrossoverinFemaleMaleCollegeEnrollmentRates.aspx |archive-date=May 27, 2013 |access-date=July 20, 2013 |publisher=Prb.org}}</ref> However, research by Diane Halpern has indicated that boys receive more attention, praise, blame and punishment in the grammar-school classroom,<ref>Halpern, Diane F. ''Sex differences in cognitive abilities''. Laurence Erlbaum Associates, 2000. {{ISBN|0-8058-2792-7}}. Page 259.</ref> and "this pattern of more active teacher attention directed at male students continues at the postsecondary level".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sadker |first1=Myra |url=https://archive.org/details/genderinclassroo00ffer/page/177 |title=Gender in the Classroom: Power and Pedagogy |last2=Sadker |first2=David |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-252-06110-3 |editor-last=Gabriel |editor-first=Susan L. |location=Urbana |page=[https://archive.org/details/genderinclassroo00ffer/page/177 177] |chapter=Confronting Sexism in the College Classroom |editor2-last=Smithson |editor2-first=Isaiah |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/genderinclassroo00ffer}}</ref> Over time, female students speak less in a classroom setting.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sadker |first1=Myra |url=https://archive.org/details/mappingsociallan00susa_2/page/350 |title=Mapping the social landscape: readings in sociology |last2=Sadker |first2=David |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7674-0616-1 |editor-last=Ferguson |editor-first=Sandra J. |page=[https://archive.org/details/mappingsociallan00susa_2/page/350 350] |chapter=Failing at Fairness: Hidden Lessons |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mappingsociallan00susa_2}}</ref> Teachers also tend to spend more time supporting the academic achievements of girls.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Younger |first1=Michael |last2=Warrington |first2=Molly |last3=Williams |first3=Jacquetta |date=1999 |title=The Gender Gap and Classroom Interactions: Reality and rhetoric? |journal=British Journal of Sociology of Education |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=325–341 |doi=10.1080/01425699995290}}</ref>

Boys are frequently diagnosed with [[ADHD]], which some see as a result of school systems being more likely to apply these labels to males.<ref>{{cite news |last=Abraham |first=Carolyn |date=August 23, 2012 |title=Part 3: Are we medicating a disorder or treating boyhood as a disease? |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/time-to-lead/failing-boys/part-3-are-we-medicating-a-disorder-or-treating-boyhood-as-a-disease/article1762859/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513222447/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/time-to-lead/failing-boys/part-3-are-we-medicating-a-disorder-or-treating-boyhood-as-a-disease/article1762859/ |archive-date=May 13, 2013 |access-date=July 20, 2013 |newspaper=[[The Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto}}</ref> A recent study by the OECD in over 60 countries found that teachers give boys lower grades for the same work. The researchers attribute this to stereotypical ideas about boys and recommend teachers to be aware of this gender bias.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Coughlan |first1=Sean |date=March 5, 2015 |title=Teachers 'give higher marks to girls' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-31751672 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> One study found that students give female professors worse evaluation scores than male professors, even though the students appear to do as well under female professors as male professors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boring |first=Anne |year=2017 |title=Gender Biases in Student Evaluations of Teaching |url=https://pure.eur.nl/en/publications/a37339e4-7b42-4e5f-8333-bbb2f9fdcce5 |journal=[[Journal of Public Economics]] |volume=145 |pages=27–41 |doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2016.11.006}}</ref>

Gender bias and gender-based discrimination still permeate the education process in many settings. For example, in the teaching and learning process, including differential engagement, expectations and interactions by teachers with their male and female students, as well as gender stereotypes in [[textbook]]s and learning materials. There has been a lack in adequate resources and infrastructure to ensure safe and enabling [[learning environment]]s, and insufficient policy, legal and planning frameworks, that respect, protect and fulfil the [[right to education]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=UNESCO |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000369000?posInSet=1&queryId=1d7dd56b-7298-433b-a194-50d378d393e6 |title=From access to empowerment: UNESCO strategy for gender equality in and through education 2019-2025 |publisher=UNESCO |year=2019 |isbn=978-92-3-100330-1}}</ref>

=== Fashion ===

{{See also|Foot binding|Burqa}}
{{Further|Gendered associations of pink and blue}}
[[File:Gobert - Louis XV as child, Fundación Jakober.jpg|thumb|upright|alt= Louis XV as a boy wearing a pink dress. |[[Louis XV]] in 1712, a boy wearing a pink dress]]
[[File:A HIGH CASTE LADYS DAINTY LILY FEET.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A Chinese woman shows the effects of foot binding on her feet. |Chinese woman shows the effect of [[foot binding]].]]

Feminists argue that clothing and footwear fashion have been oppressive to women, restricting their movements, increasing their vulnerability, and endangering their health.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jeffreys |first1=Sheila |url=http://www.feministes-radicales.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Jeffreys_Beauty_and_Misogyny_Harmful_Cultural_Practices_in_the_West__Women_and_Psychology_1.pdf |title=Beauty and Misogyny:Harmful cultural practices in the west |publisher=Taylor & Francis e-Library |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-203-69856-3 |location=East Sussex |access-date=March 8, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606103815/http://www.feministes-radicales.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Jeffreys_Beauty_and_Misogyny_Harmful_Cultural_Practices_in_the_West__Women_and_Psychology_1.pdf |archive-date=June 6, 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Using thin models in the fashion industry has encouraged the development of [[bulimia]] and [[anorexia nervosa]], as well as locking female consumers into false feminine identities.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hollows |first=Joanne |url=https://archive.org/details/feminismfeminini0000holl |title=Feminism, Femininity and Popular Culture |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7190-4394-9 |location=Manchester, UK |page=[https://archive.org/details/feminismfeminini0000holl/page/139 139] |quote=Oppressive fashions feminism. |access-date=March 11, 2013 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

The assignment of gender-specific baby clothes can instill in children a belief in negative gender stereotypes.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bindel |first=Julie |date=January 24, 2012 |title=Julie Bindel: Boys aren't born wanting to wear blue |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/julie-bindel-boys-arent-born-wanting-to-wear-blue-6293688.html |work=[[The Independent]] |location=London}}</ref> One example is the assignment in some countries of the color pink to girls and blue to boys. The fashion is recent one. At the beginning of the 20th century the trend was the opposite: blue for girls and pink for boys.<ref>{{cite magazine |author=Maglaty, Jeanne |date=April 7, 2011 |title=When Did Girls Start Wearing Pink? |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/when-did-girls-start-wearing-pink-1370097/ |access-date=March 16, 2015 |magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]}}</ref> In the early 1900s, ''The Women's Journal'' wrote that "pink being a more decided and stronger colour, is more suitable for the boy, while blue, which is more delicate and dainty, is prettier for the girl". ''DressMaker'' magazine also explained that "[t]he preferred colour to dress young boys in is pink. Blue is reserved for girls as it is considered paler, and the more dainty of the two colours, and pink is thought to be stronger (akin to red)".<ref>{{cite news |date=January 8, 2009 |title=Should we not dress girls in pink? |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7817496.stm |access-date=March 31, 2015 |work=BBC News}}</ref> Today, in many countries, it is considered inappropriate for boys to wear dresses and skirts, but this is also a relatively recent view. From the mid-16th century<ref>Melanie Scheussler suggests a date of post-1540 for England, France, and the Low Countries; see Scheussler, {{"'}}She Hath Over Grown All that She Ever Hath': Children's Clothing in the Lisle Letters, 1533–40", in Netherton, Robin, and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, editors, ''Medieval Clothing and Textiles'', Volume 3, p. 185. Before roughly this date various styles of long robes were in any case commonly worn by adult males of various sorts, so boys wearing them could probably not be said to form a distinct phenomenon.</ref> until the late 19th or early 20th century, young boys in the [[Western world]] were [[breeching (boys)|unbreeched]] and wore [[gown]]s or dresses until an age that varied between two and eight.<ref>Baumgarten, Linda: ''What Clothes Reveal: The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America'', p. 166</ref>

Laws that dictate how women must dress are seen by many international human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International, as gender discrimination.<ref name="Amnesty International 2010">{{cite web |date=10 November 2010 |title=Women's right to choose their dress, free of coercion |url=https://doc.es.amnesty.org/cgi-bin/ai/BRSCGI/WOMENS%20RIGHT%20TO%20CHOOSE%20THEIR%20DRESS%20FREE%20OF%20COERCION?CMD=VEROBJ&MLKOB=29309215959 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927134431/https://doc.es.amnesty.org/cgi-bin/ai/BRSCGI/WOMENS%20RIGHT%20TO%20CHOOSE%20THEIR%20DRESS%20FREE%20OF%20COERCION?CMD=VEROBJ&MLKOB=29309215959 |archive-date=2013-09-27 |archive-format=PDF |publisher=Amnesty International |page=1 |format=PDF |id=IOR 40/022/2010}}</ref> In many countries, women face violence for failing to adhere to certain dress codes, whether by the authorities (such as the [[religious police]]), family members, or the community.<ref>{{cite news |date=July 15, 2007 |title=Iran to intensify dress crackdown |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6900111.stm |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=March 15, 2002 |title=Saudi police 'stopped' fire rescue |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1874471.stm |access-date=2015-03-31 |work=BBC News}}</ref> Amnesty International states:

<blockquote>Interpretations of religion, culture, or tradition cannot justify imposing rules about dress on those who choose to dress differently. States should take measures to protect individuals from being coerced to dress in specific ways by family members, community or religious groups or leaders.<ref name="Amnesty International 2010" /></blockquote>

The production process also faces criticism for sexist practices. In the garment industry, approximately 80 percent of workers are female.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Davelaar |first=Geertjan |title=Gender: Women workers mistreated—Clean Clothes Campaign |url=https://cleanclothes.org/issues/gender |access-date=November 6, 2016 |website=cleanclothes.org |language=en}}</ref> Much garment production is located in Asia because of low labor costs. Women who work in these factories are sexually harassed by managers and male workers, paid low wages, and [[Pregnancy discrimination|discriminated against when pregnant]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=March 11, 2015 |title=Work Faster or Get Out |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/03/11/work-faster-or-get-out/labor-rights-abuses-cambodias-garment-industry |access-date=November 6, 2016 |newspaper=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>

=== Female genital mutilation ===

{{Main|Female genital mutilation}}
[[File:Campaign road sign against female genital mutilation (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|alt=Campaign sign against female genital mutilation that reads:Stop Female Circumcision It is Dangerous to Women's Health |Campaign against [[female genital mutilation]] in [[Uganda]]]]

Female genital mutilation is defined by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons". The WHO further states, "The practice has no health benefits for girls and women and [can] cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, as well as complications in childbirth and increased risk of newborn deaths."<ref name="WHO Female Genital Mutilation">{{cite web |date=5 February 2024 |title=Female genital mutilation |url=https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=Newsroom |publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> It "is recognized internationally as a violation of the human rights of girls and women" and "constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women".<ref name="WHO Female Genital Mutilation" /> The [[European Parliament]] stated in a 2014 resolution that the practice "clearly goes against the European founding value of equality between women and men and maintains traditional values according to which women are seen as the objects and properties of men".<ref name="European Parliament 2014">{{cite web |title=Texts adopted - Elimination of female genital mutilation - Thursday, 6 February 2014 |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-7-2014-0105_EN.html |access-date=18 February 2024 |publisher=European Parliament}}</ref>

=== Gendercide and forced sterilization ===

[[File:2012 Birth Sex Ratio World Map.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|alt= World map showing birth sex ratios |World map of birth sex ratios, 2012]]
[[File:Something you wouldn't see in America (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|alt=Sign in an Indian clinic reading "Prenatal disclosure of sex of foetues is prohibited under law" in English and Hindi.]]<!-- WP:Caption "Not every image ..." -->
[[File:G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|alt= Roadside graffiti reading:"Crack down on medically unnecessary fetus sex identification and pregnancy termination practices." |"Crack down on medically unnecessary fetus sex identification and pregnancy termination practices."]]

[[Female infanticide]] is the killing of newborn female children, while female [[sex-selective abortion|selective abortion]] is the terminating of a pregnancy based upon the female sex of the fetus. [[Gendercide]] is the systematic killing of members of a specific gender and it is an extreme form of gender-based violence.<ref name="EIGE">{{cite web |url=http://eige.europa.eu/content/what-is-gender-based-violence |title=What is gender-based violence? |website=EIGE |access-date=September 24, 2013 |archive-date=May 9, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509145046/http://eige.europa.eu/content/what-is-gender-based-violence}}</ref><ref name="BBC Ethics Guide">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/abortion/medical/infanticide_1.shtml |title=Ethics—Abortion: Female infanticide |website=BBC |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240116171112/https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/abortion/medical/infanticide_1.shtml |archive-date= Jan 16, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gsdrc.org/go/topic-guides/gender/gender-based-violence |title=Gender-based violence |publisher=GSDRC  |access-date=March 31, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414235651/http://www.gsdrc.org/go/topic-guides/gender/gender-based-violence |archive-date= Apr 14, 2015 }}</ref> Female infanticide is more common than male infanticide, and is especially prevalent in [[South Asia]], in countries such as [[Female infanticide in China|China]], [[Female infanticide in India|India]] and [[Female infanticide in Pakistan|Pakistan]].<ref name="BBC Ethics Guide" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6934540.stm |work=BBC News |first=Nick |last=Bryant |title=Girls at risk amid India's prosperity |date=August 18, 2007 |access-date=March 31, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101131250/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6934540.stm |archive-date= Jan 1, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.domesticviolenceservices.com/female-infanticide.html |title=Female Infanticide in India and China |access-date=September 24, 2013}}</ref> Recent studies suggest that over 90&nbsp;million [[Missing women of Asia|women and girls are missing]] in China and India as a result of infanticide.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/24/opinion/24iht-edswami.html?_r=0 Missing: 50 million Indian girls]". The New York Times. November 25, 2005</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://iussp2005.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=51345 |title=Estimation of the Number of Missing Females in China: 1900-2000 |access-date=July 15, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420051451/http://iussp2005.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=51345 |archive-date=April 20, 2012}}</ref>

Sex-selective abortion involves terminating a pregnancy based upon the predicted sex of the baby. The abortion of female fetuses is most common in areas where a culture values male children over females,<ref name="Goodkind 1999" /> such as parts of [[East Asia]] and South Asia (China, India, Korea), the [[Caucasus]] (Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia), and [[Western Balkans]] (Albania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Kosovo).<ref name="Goodkind 1999">{{cite journal |year=1999 |title=Should Prenatal Sex Selection be Restricted?: Ethical Questions and Their Implications for Research and Policy |journal=Population Studies |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=49–61 |doi=10.1080/00324720308069 |jstor=2584811 |author=Goodkind, Daniel}}</ref><ref name="Gettis 2004">{{cite book |first1=A. |last1=Gettis |first2=J. |last2=Getis |first3=J. D. |last3=Fellmann |year=2004 |title=Introduction to Geography |edition=Ninth |location=New York |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |page=200 |isbn=978-0-07-252183-2}}</ref> One reason for this preference is that males are seen as generating more income than females. The trend has grown steadily over the previous decade, and may result in a future shortage of women.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110314132244.htm |title=The impact of sex selection and abortion in China, India and South Korea |website=ScienceDaily |language=en |access-date=August 26, 2019}}</ref>

[[Forced sterilization]] and [[forced abortion]] are also forms of gender-based violence.<ref name="EIGE" /> Forced sterilization was practiced during the first half of the 20th century by many Western countries and there are reports of this practice being currently employed in some countries, such as [[Uzbekistan]] and China.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17612550 |work=BBC News |title=Uzbekistan's policy of secretly sterilising women |date=April 12, 2012 |access-date=March 31, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01fjx63 |title=BBC Radio 4—Crossing Continents, Forced Sterilisation in Uzbekistan |website=BBC |access-date=March 31, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/china/130409/china-mother-dies-after-forced-sterilization-one-child-policy |title=China 'one-child' policy: Mother of 2 dies after forced sterilization—GlobalPost |website=[[GlobalPost]]|date=April 9, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/thousands-risk-forced-sterilization-china-2010-04-22 |title=Everything you need to know about human rights |website=Amnesty International |access-date=March 31, 2015 |archive-date=May 29, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529125647/https://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/thousands-risk-forced-sterilization-china-2010-04-22}}</ref>

In China, the [[one child policy]] interacting with the low status of women has been deemed responsible for many abuses, such as female infanticide, sex-selective abortion, abandonment of baby girls, forced abortion, and forced sterilization.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-34667551 |title=Explainer: What was China's one-child policy? |date=29 October 2015 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/may/06/chinas-barbaric-one-child-policy |title=China's barbaric one-child policy |first=Ma |last=Jian |date=May 6, 2013 |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>

In India, the custom of dowry is strongly related to female infanticide, sex-selective abortion, abandonment and mistreatment of girls.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kirti Singh |date=August 2013 |title=Laws and Son Preference in India: A Reality Check |url=http://india.unfpa.org/drive/LawsandSonPreferenceinIndia.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313094849/http://india.unfpa.org/drive/LawsandSonPreferenceinIndia.pdf |archive-date=March 13, 2014 |publisher=United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)—India}}</ref> Such practices are especially present in the northwestern part of the country: [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Haryana]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Uttarakhand]] and [[Delhi]]. (See [[Female foeticide in India]] and [[Female infanticide in India]]).

=== Legal justice and regulations ===

[[File:Taliban beating woman in public RAWA.jpg|thumb|alt=A Taliban religious policeman beating a woman because she removed her burqa in public.| Member of the Taliban's [[Islamic religious police|religious police]] beating an Afghan woman in [[Kabul]] on August 26, 2001. [[Political violence|State violence]] against women is a form of discrimination.]]

In several [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC) countries the legal testimony of a woman is worth legally half of that of a man (see [[Status of women's testimony in Islam]]). Such countries include: Algeria (in criminal cases), Bahrain (in [[Sharia]] courts), Egypt (in family courts), Iran (in most cases), Iraq (in some cases), Jordan (in Sharia courts), Kuwait (in family courts), Libya (in some cases), Morocco (in family cases), Palestine (in cases related to marriage, divorce and child custody), Qatar (in family law matters), Syria (in Sharia courts), United Arab Emirates (in some civil matters), Yemen (not allowed to testify at all in cases of adultery and retribution), and Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gender equality profiles from the Middle East and North Africa Region |url=http://www.unicef.org/gender/gender_62215.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326010714/http://www.unicef.org/gender/gender_62215.html |archive-date=March 26, 2015 |access-date=2015-03-31 |website=UNICEF}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Article 7: Right to equal protection by the law |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/people/features/ihavearightto/four_b/casestudy_art07.shtml |access-date=March 31, 2015 |work=BBC World Service |publisher=BBC}}</ref> Such laws have been criticized by [[Human Rights Watch]] and Equality Now as being discriminatory towards women.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 7, 2012 |title=Codifying Repression |url=https://www.hrw.org/zh-hans/node/109622/section/11 |access-date=March 31, 2015 |website=Human Rights Watch |archive-date=April 2, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402132636/http://www.hrw.org/zh-hans/node/109622/section/11 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=February 6, 2015 |title=The Islamic Penal Code of 2013, Books I, II and V |url=http://www.equalitynow.org/law/the_islamic_penal_code_of_2013_books_i_ii_and_v |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402163041/http://www.equalitynow.org/law/the_islamic_penal_code_of_2013_books_i_ii_and_v |archive-date=April 2, 2015 |access-date=March 31, 2015 |website=Equality Now}}</ref>

Some countries use [[stoning]] as a form of capital punishment. According to Amnesty International, the majority of those stoned are women and women are disproportionately affected by stoning because of sexism in the legal system.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 15, 2008 |title=Amnesty International—Iran: Death by stoning, a grotesque and unacceptable penalty |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/for-media/press-releases/iran-death-stoning-grotesque-and-unacceptable-penalty-20080115 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020184028/http://www.amnesty.org/en/for-media/press-releases/iran-death-stoning-grotesque-and-unacceptable-penalty-20080115 |archive-date=October 20, 2013 |website=amnesty.org}}</ref>

The criminal justice system in many [[common law countries]] has also been accused of discriminating against women. [[Provocation (legal)|Provocation]] is, in many common law countries, a partial defense to [[murder]], which converts what would have been murder into [[manslaughter]]. It is meant to be applied when a person kills in the "heat of passion" upon being "provoked" by the behavior of the victim. This defense has been criticized as being gendered, favoring men, because of it being used disproportionately in cases of [[adultery]], and other domestic disputes when women are killed by their partners. As a result of the defense exhibiting a strong gender bias, and being a form of legitimization of male violence against women and minimization of the harm caused by violence against women, it has been abolished or restricted in several jurisdictions.<ref>[http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/Prod/parlment/publications.nsf/0/F2BA1BFEED2D87EECA257A4800001BD7/$File/briefing%20paper.provocation%20and%20self-defence.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140623052433/http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/Prod/parlment/publications.nsf/0/F2BA1BFEED2D87EECA257A4800001BD7/%24File/briefing%20paper.provocation%20and%20self-defence.pdf|date=June 23, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kate Fitz-Gibbon |date=August 1, 2012 |title=Provocation in New South Wales: The need for abolition |journal=Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=194–213 |doi=10.1177/0004865812443681 |s2cid=144833987}}</ref>

The traditional leniency towards [[crimes of passion]] in Latin American countries has been deemed to have its origin in the view that women are property.<ref name="Mayell 2002">{{cite web |last=Mayell |first=Hillary |date=February 12, 2002 |title=Thousands of Women Killed for Family 'Honor' |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0212_020212_honorkilling.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020215152919/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0212_020212_honorkilling.html |archive-date=February 15, 2002 |website=National Geographic News}}</ref> In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, stated that, "[S]o-called crimes of passion have a similar dynamic [to honor killings] in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable."<ref name="Mayell 2002" /> The [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] (OHCHR) has called for "the elimination of discriminatory provisions in the legislation, including mitigating factors for 'crimes of passion{{'}}."<ref>{{cite web |date=August 2013 |title=Gender-Related Killings of Women and Girls |url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/OnePagers/Gender_motivated_killings.pdf |publisher=[[Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights]]}}</ref>

Transgender people face widespread discrimination while incarcerated. They are generally housed according to their legal birth sex, rather than their gender identity. Studies have shown that transgender people are at an increased risk for harassment and sexual assault in this environment. They may also be denied access to medical procedures related to their reassignment.<ref>"Unlike race and ethnic discrimination, however, the evidence is more consistent that part of this gap is due to different treatment of offenders based on their gender."{{cite web |date=July 25, 2013 |title=Real life Sophia Bursets Transgender Women face a nightmare in Men's Prisons |url=http://www.autostraddle.com/real-life-sophia-bursets-transgender-women-face-a-nightmare-in-mens-prisons-186876/ |access-date=October 18, 2013}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Further|Conscription and sexism|Women in the military}}
[[File:20110610 WN S1015650 0034 - Flickr - NZ Defence Force.jpg|alt=|thumb|New Zealand soldiers]]

[[Conscription]], or compulsory military service, has been criticized as sexist.<ref name="Benatar 2012">{{Cite book |last=Benatar |first=David |author-link=David Benatar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdIrkGLHLPsC |title=The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men and Boys |date=May 7, 2012 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-470-67451-2 |publication-date=May 15, 2012 |access-date=April 26, 2015}}</ref>{{Rp|102}}<!-- Split from ":0"--><ref>{{Cite web |last=Berlatsky |first=Noah |date=May 29, 2013 |title=When Men Experience Sexism |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/05/when-men-experience-sexism/276355/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150105151244/http://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/05/when-men-experience-sexism/276355/ |archive-date=January 5, 2015 |access-date=April 26, 2015 |website=[[The Atlantic]]}}</ref> During the Modern era, prior to the late 20th century, mostly men were subjected to conscription,
although there were several instances of conscription of women in [[Ancient history|Antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]].<ref name="Gagova 2015">{{cite book |last1=Gagova |first1=Krasimira |title=Power. Ideologies. Rituals., p. 47 "despite their exclusion from the sphere of power, women were sometimes subjected to conscription not only in the Byzantine Empire, but in any other parts of Europe too"; p. 66: "After that in 811 Krum mobilized thousands of armed women in the battle against the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus I" |date=2015 |publisher=Polis |isbn=978-954-8624-45-9}}</ref><ref name="Matanov 2014">{{cite book |last1=Matanov |first1=Hristo |title=В търсене на средновековното време. Неравният път на българите (VII–XV в.)(in Bulgarian), pp. 91 "Furthermore Khan Krum subjected to conscription thousand of women and Avars in the Battle of Pliska" |date=2014 |publisher=IK Gutenberg |isbn=9786191760183}}</ref><ref name="Benatar 2012" />{{Rp|255}}<!-- Split from ":0"--><ref>Goldstein, Joshua S. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=XUAsskBg8ywC&pg=PA108 "War and Gender: Men's War Roles—Boyhood and Coming of Age"]. In Ember, Carol R.; Ember, Melvin ''Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures''. Volume 1. [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]. p. 108. {{ISBN|978-0-306-47770-6}}. Retrieved April 25, 2015.</ref><ref>Kronsell, Anica (June 29, 2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=qVcV-JBhoVUC&pg=PA113 "Methods for studying silence: The 'silence' of Swedish conscription"]. In Ackerly, Brooke A.; Stern, Maria; [[Jacqui True|True, Jacqui]] ''Feminist Methodologies for International Relations''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. p. 113. {{ISBN|978-1-139-45873-3}}. Retrieved April 25, 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Selmeski |first=Brian R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nv8_omV87vkC&pg=PA149 |title=Multicultural Citizens, Monocultural Men: Indigineity, Masculinity, and Conscription in Ecuador |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-549-40315-9 |location=[[Syracuse University]] |page=149 |access-date=April 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Joenniemi |first=Pertti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwaa7jKmE_IC&pg=PA149 |title=The Changing Face of European Conscription |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-754-64410-1 |pages=142–149 |access-date=April 25, 2015}}</ref> Today most countries still require only men to serve in the military.

In his book ''The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men and Boys'' (2012), philosopher [[David Benatar]] states that "[t]he prevailing assumption is that where conscription is necessary, it is only men who should be conscripted and, similarly, that only males should be forced into combat". This, he believes, "is a sexist assumption".<ref name="Benatar 2012" />{{Rp|102}}<!-- Split from ":0"--> Anthropologist Ayse Gül Altinay has commented that "given equal suffrage rights, there is no other citizenship practice that differentiates as radically between men and women as compulsory male conscription".<ref name="Altinay 2004">{{Cite book |last=Altinay |first=Ayse Gül |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=keLIAAAAQBAJ |title=The Myth of the Military-Nation: Militarism, Gender, and Education in Turkey |date=December 9, 2004 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-1-403-97936-0 |publication-date=December 10, 2004}}</ref>{{Rp|34}}

Only nine countries conscript women into their armed forces: China, Eritrea, Israel, Libya, Malaysia, North Korea, Norway, Peru, and Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 30, 2006 |title=Indepth: Femsle Soldiers—Women in the military—international |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/military-international/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404041241/http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/military-international/ |archive-date=April 4, 2015 |access-date=May 2, 2015 |publisher=[[CBC News]]}}</ref><ref name="Koranyi 2014">{{Cite news |last1=Koranyi |first1=Balazs |last2=Fouche |first2=Gwladys |date=June 14, 2014 |editor-last=Char |editor-first=Pravin |title=Norway becomes first NATO country to draft women into military |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-norway-women-conscription-idUSBRE95D0NB20130614 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128132614/https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/14/us-norway-women-conscription-idUSBRE95D0NB20130614 |archive-date=January 28, 2015 |access-date=April 26, 2015 |work=[[Reuters]] |location=Oslo, Norway}}</ref> Other countries—such as [[Conscription in Finland|Finland]], [[Conscription in Turkey|Turkey]], and [[Conscription in Singapore|Singapore]]—still use a system of conscription which requires military service from men only, although women may serve voluntarily. In 2014, Norway became the first [[NATO]] country to introduce obligatory military service for women as an act of gender equality<ref name="Koranyi 2014" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=October 27, 2014 |title=Women in the Armed Forces |url=http://mil.no/organisation/personnel/women/Pages/default.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502082510/http://mil.no/organisation/personnel/women/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=May 2, 2015 |access-date=May 2, 2015 |publisher=[[Norwegian Armed Forces]]}}</ref> and in 2015, the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] government started preparing a gender-neutral draft law.<ref>{{cite web |date=February 2, 2016 |title=Kaderwet dienstplicht wordt aangepast voor vrouwen |url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/actueel/nieuws/2016/02/02/kaderwet-dienstplicht-wordt-aangepast-voor-vrouwen |publisher=Rijksoverheid |language=nl}}</ref> The gender selective draft has been challenged in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Angelluci |first=Marc E. |date=April 13, 2013 |title=National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System |url=http://ncfm.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/130404-NCFM-Selective-Service-lawsuit-complaint.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321214722/http://ncfm.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/130404-NCFM-Selective-Service-lawsuit-complaint.pdf |archive-date=March 21, 2015 |access-date=May 2, 2015 |website=[[National Coalition for Men]] |publisher=[[United States Government]]}}</ref>

Conditions in the military have been described as "sexually abusive" and the "sexual persecution" of women.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hynes |first=H. Patricia |date=2012-01-26 |title=Military Sexual Abuse: A Greater Menace Than Combat |url=https://truthout.org/articles/military-sexual-abuse-a-greater-menace-than-combat/ |access-date=2024-03-08 |website=Truthout |language=en-US}}</ref> Relentless sexist ridicule, hostility, and sexual harassment has been frequently reported.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Elsesser |first=Kim |title=Women In Army Special Ops Face 'Blatant Sexism' And Must Wear Equipment That Doesn't Fit, According To Study |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kimelsesser/2023/08/24/women-in-army-special-ops-face-blatant-sexism-and-must-wear-equipment-that-doesnt-fit-according-to-study/ |access-date=2023-11-22 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-21 |title=Female soldiers in Army special operations face rampant sexism and harassment, military report says |url=https://apnews.com/article/army-special-operations-gender-bias-female-sexism-1c904cba739b8ba3720827bd9e77f5f4 |access-date=2023-11-22 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> Women in the military are more likely to be raped by a male fellow soldier than killed by the enemy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=E. B. Knoer |first=Kelsey |date=2017 |title=The Catch-22 of Females Reporting Sexual Assault in the Military: A Cause for Holistic International Intervention |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3048&context=nlr |journal=Nebraska Law Review}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Schmid |first=Megan N. |title=Combating a Different Enemy: Proposals to Change the Culture of Sexual Assault in the Military |url=https://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=vlr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Benedict |first=Helen |title=Why Soldiers Rape |date=August 13, 2008 |url=https://inthesetimes.com/article/why-soldiers-rape}}</ref> Prosecution of the reported crimes fails to move forward, as the Pentagon claimed it would undermine the leadership of the commanders.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Moyer |first=Melinda Wenner |date=2021-08-03 |title='A Poison in the System': The Epidemic of Military Sexual Assault |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/03/magazine/military-sexual-assault.html |access-date=2023-11-22 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Army report shows women serving in the special forces face intense sexism |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/09/07/1198066527/u-s-army-report-shows-women-serving-in-the-special-forces-face-intense-sexism#:~:text=A%20recent%20report%20from%20the,Pentagon%20to%20address%20their%20conditions. |website=[[NPR]]}}</ref>

===Sentencing disparity===
{{Main|Sentencing disparity}}
In the United States, some studies have shown that for identical crimes, men are given harsher sentences than women. Controlling for arrest offense, criminal history, and other pre-charge variables, sentences are over 60% heavier for men. Women are more likely to avoid charges entirely, and to avoid imprisonment if convicted.<ref name="McCormack 2012">{{cite news |last=McCormack |first=Simon |date=September 11, 2012 |title=Men Sentenced To Longer Prison Terms Than Women For Same Crimes, Study Says |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/09/11/men-women-prison-sentence-length-gender-gap_n_1874742.html |access-date=July 20, 2013 |work=Huffington Post}}</ref><ref name="University of Michigan 2012">{{cite web |date=Nov 16, 2012 |title=Prof. Starr's research shows large unexplained gender disparities in federal criminal cases |url=http://www.law.umich.edu/newsandinfo/features/Pages/starr_gender_disparities.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005022637/http://www.law.umich.edu/newsandinfo/features/Pages/starr_gender_disparities.aspx |archive-date=Oct 5, 2013 |publisher=The University of Michigan Law School}}</ref> The gender disparity varies according to the nature of the case. For example, the gender gap is less pronounced in fraud cases than in drug trafficking and firearms. This disparity occurs in US federal courts, despite guidelines designed to avoid differential sentencing.<ref name="Doerner 2009">{{Cite thesis |last=Doerner |first=Jill Kathleen |title=Explaining the Gender Gap in Sentencing Outcomes: An Investigation of Differential Treatment in U.S. Federal Courts |date=2009 |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=Bowling Green State University |url=http://etd.ohiolink.edu/view.cgi?acc_num=bgsu1237482038 |via=OhioLINK ETD Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130630184354/http://etd.ohiolink.edu/view.cgi?acc_num=bgsu1237482038 |archive-date=2013-06-30}}</ref> The death penalty may also suffer from gender bias. According to Shatz and Shatz, "[t]he present study confirms what earlier studies have shown: that the death penalty is imposed on women relatively infrequently and that it is disproportionately imposed for the killing of women".<ref>{{cite web |date=Feb 28, 2011 |title=Studies: Gender Bias in Death Sentencing |url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/studies-gender-bias-death-sentencing |access-date=March 31, 2015 |website=Death Penalty Information Center}}</ref>

There have been several reasons postulated for the gender criminal justice disparity in the United States. One of the most common is the expectation that women are predominantly care-givers.<ref name="McCormack 2012" /><ref name="University of Michigan 2012" /><ref name="Doerner 2009" /> Other possible reasons include the "girlfriend theory" (whereby women are seen as tools of their boyfriends),<ref name="University of Michigan 2012" /> the theory that female defendants are more likely to cooperate with authorities,<ref name="University of Michigan 2012" /> and that women are often successful at turning their violent crime into victimhood by citing defenses such as [[postpartum depression]] or [[battered wife syndrome]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Patricia |url=https://archive.org/details/whenshewasbadhow00pear/page/236 |title=When She Was Bad: How and Why Women Get Away With Murder |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-14-024388-8 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whenshewasbadhow00pear/page/236 236–239]}}</ref> However, none of these theories account for the total disparity,<ref name="University of Michigan 2012" /> and sexism has also been suggested as an underlying cause.<ref>"Unlike race and ethnic discrimination, however, the evidence is more consistent that part of this gap is due to different treatment of offenders based on their gender."{{cite web |title=Chapter Four: Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities In Federal Sentencing Today |url=http://www.ussc.gov/Research_and_Statistics/Research_Projects/Miscellaneous/15_Year_Study/chap4.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823204828/http://www.ussc.gov/Research_and_Statistics/Research_Projects/Miscellaneous/15_Year_Study/chap4.pdf |archive-date=August 23, 2013 |access-date=August 30, 2013 |publisher=Ussc.gov}}</ref>

Gender discrimination also helps explain the differences between trial outcomes in which some female defendants are sentenced to death and other female defendants are sentenced to lesser punishments. [[Phillip Barron]] argues that female defendants are more likely to be sentenced to death for crimes that violate gender norms, such as killing children or killing strangers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barron |first1=Phillip |date=2000 |title=Gender Discrimination in the U.S. Death Penalty System |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BARGDI |journal=[[Radical Philosophy Review]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=89–96 |doi=10.5840/radphilrev20003110}}</ref>

One study found that: <blockquote>[O]n average, women receive lighter sentences in comparison with men{{nbsp}}... roughly 30% of the gender differences in incarceration cannot be explained by the observed criminal characteristics of offense and offender. We also find evidence of considerable heterogeneity across judges in their treatment of female and male offenders. There is little evidence, however, that tastes for gender discrimination are driving the mean gender disparity or the variance in treatment between judges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Butcher |first1=Kristin F. |last2=Park |first2=Kyung H. |last3=Morrison Piehl |first3=Anne |year=2017 |title=Comparing Apples to Oranges: Differences in Women's and Men's Incarceration and Sentencing Outcomes |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w23079.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Labor Economics]] |volume=35 |issue=S1 |pages=S201–S234 |doi=10.1086/691276 |s2cid=149991197}}</ref></blockquote>

A 2017 study by Knepper found that "female plaintiffs filing workplace sex discrimination claims are substantially more likely to settle and win compensation whenever a female judge is assigned to the case. Additionally, female judges are 15 percentage points less likely than male judges to grant motions filed by defendants, which suggests that final negotiations are shaped by the emergence of the bias."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knepper |first=Matthew |date=2017 |title=When the Shadow is the Substance: Judge Gender and the Outcomes of Workplace Sex Discrimination Cases |journal=Journal of Labor Economics |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=623–664 |doi=10.1086/696150 |s2cid=157714160}}</ref>

=== Reproductive rights ===

{{Main|Reproductive rights}}

The [[United Nations Population Fund]] writes that, "Family planning is central to gender equality and women's empowerment".<ref name="UNFPA">{{cite web |title=Family planning—UNFPA—United Nations Population Fund |url=http://www.unfpa.org/family-planning |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> Women in many countries around the world are denied medical and informational services related to [[reproductive health]], including access to pregnancy care, family planning, and contraception.<ref name="UNFPA" /><ref>{{cite web |author=Paul Hunt |author2=Judith Bueno de Mesquita |title=Reducing Maternal Mortality |url=http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/reducing_mm.pdf}}</ref> In countries with very strict abortion laws (particularly in [[Latin America]]) women who suffer [[miscarriages]] are often investigated by the police under suspicion of having deliberately provoked the miscarriage and are sometimes jailed,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lakhani |first1=Nina |date=October 18, 2013 |title=El Salvador: Where women may be jailed for miscarrying |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24532694 |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> a practice which Amnesty International called a "ruthless campaign against women's rights".<ref>{{cite web |date=January 15, 2015 |title=El Salvador must release women imprisoned after pregnancy related complications |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/articles/news/2015/01/el-salvador-must-release-women-imprisoned-after-pregnancy-related-complications/}}</ref> Doctors may be reluctant to treat pregnant women who are very ill, because they are afraid the treatment may result in fetal loss.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nicaragua abortion ban 'cruel and inhuman disgrace' |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/07/28/nicaragua.abortion.ban/ |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> According to [[Amnesty International]], "Discriminatory attitudes towards women and girls also means access to sex education and contraceptives are near impossible [in El Salvador]".<ref>{{cite web |title=El Salvador: Total ban on abortion is killing women and girls and condemning others to decades behind bars |url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/news/news-item/el-salvador-total-ban-on-abortion-is-killing-women-and-girls-and-condemning-others-to-decades-behind |access-date=June 14, 2015 |website=Amnesty International USA}}</ref> The organization has also criticized laws and policies which require the husband's consent for a woman to use reproductive health services as being discriminatory and dangerous to [[women's health]] and life: "[F]or the woman who needs her husband's consent to get contraception, the consequences of discrimination can be serious—even fatal".<ref>{{cite web |title=Women's Lives, Women's Rights Campaigning for Maternal Health and Sexual and Reproductive Rights |url=http://www.amnesty.ca/sites/amnesty/files/womens_lives_womens_rights_campaigning.pdf |publisher=Amnesty International}}</ref>

=== Sexual assault and treatment of victims ===

{{Main|Sexual assault|Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims}}

[[File:Bangalore protests following Delhi gang-rape (photo - Jim Ankan Deka).jpg|thumb|alt=People carrying a banner marching in a protest against gang rape|People in [[Bangalore]], India, demanding justice for a student [[2012 Delhi gang rape case|gang-raped in Delhi]] in 2012]]

Research by Lisak and Roth into factors motivating perpetrators of sexual assault, including rape, against women revealed a pattern of hatred towards women and pleasure in inflicting psychological and physical trauma, rather than sexual interest.<ref name="Lisak 1988">{{cite journal |author=Lisak, D. |author-link=David Lisak |author2=Roth, S. |year=1988 |title=Motivational factors in nonincarcerated sexually aggressive men |journal=[[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=795–802 |pmid=3210146 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.795}}</ref> Mary Odem and Peggy Reeves Sanday posit that rape is the result not of pathology but of systems of male dominance, cultural practices and beliefs.<ref name="Sanday 1981">{{cite journal |title=The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study |author=Sanday, Peggy Reeves |journal=[[Journal of Social Issues]] |year=1981 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=5–27 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1981.tb01068.x}}</ref>

Odem, Jody Clay-Warner, and [[Susan Brownmiller]] argue that sexist attitudes are propagated by a series of myths about rape and rapists.<ref name="Odem 1998" />{{rp|130–140}}<ref name="Brownmiller 1975">{{Cite book |author=Brownmiller, Susan |author-link=Susan Brownmiller |title=Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape |year=1975 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]], Limited |location=New York |isbn=978-0-14-013986-0 |page=480}}</ref> They state that in contrast to those myths, rapists often plan a rape before they choose a victim<ref name="Odem 1998" /> and [[acquaintance rape]] (not assault by a stranger) is the most common form of rape.<ref name="Odem 1998" />{{rp|xiv}}<ref name="Bohmer 1991">{{Cite book |editor1=Parrot, Andrea |editor2=Bechhofer, Laurie |author=Bohmer, Carol |chapter=Acquaintance rape and the law |title=Acquaintance rape: the hidden crime |year=1991 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-471-51023-9 |pages=317–333}}</ref> Odem also asserts that these rape myths propagate sexist attitudes about men, by perpetuating the belief that men cannot control their sexuality.<ref name="Odem 1998">{{Cite book |author=Odem, Mary E. |author2=Clay-Warner, Jody |title=Confronting rape and sexual assault |year=1998 |publisher=Scholarly Resources |location=Wilmington, Del. |isbn=978-0-8420-2599-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/confrontingrapes00odem/page/135 135] |url=https://archive.org/details/confrontingrapes00odem/page/135}}</ref>

Sexism can promote the stigmatization of women and girls who have been raped and inhibit recovery.<ref name="whqlibdoc.who.int">{{Cite web |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2002/9241545615_chap6_eng.pdf?ua=1 |title=World report on violence and health |website=whqlibdoc.who.int |access-date=December 4, 2019}}</ref> In many parts of the world, women who have been raped are [[Social rejection|ostracized]], rejected by their families, subjected to violence, and—in extreme cases—may become victims of honor killings because they are deemed to have brought shame upon their families.<ref name="whqlibdoc.who.int" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895 |work=BBC News |title=Libya rape victims 'face honour killings' |date=June 14, 2011 |access-date=March 31, 2015}}</ref>

The criminalization of marital rape is very recent, having occurred during the past few decades; in many countries it is still legal. Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made spousal rape illegal before 1970; other European countries and some English-speaking countries outside Europe outlawed it later, mostly in the 1980s and 1990s;<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWttAAAAQBAJ&q=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+European+Criminology&pg=PR1 |title=The Routledge Handbook of European Criminology |website=Google.ro |access-date=March 31, 2015 |isbn=978-1-136-18549-6 |last1=Body-Gendrot |author1-link=Sophie Body-Gendrot |first1=Sophie |last2=Hough |first2=Mike |last3=Kerezsi |first3=Klara |last4=Lévy |first4=René |last5=Snacken |first5=Sonja |date=August 15, 2013 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> some countries outlawed it in the 2000s.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6225872.stm |title=Thailand passes marital rape bill |date=21 June 2007 |work=BBC News}}</ref> The WHO wrote that: "Marriage is often used to legitimize a range of forms of sexual violence against women. The custom of marrying off young children, particularly girls, is found in many parts of the world. This practice—legal in many countries—is a form of sexual violence, since the children involved are unable to give or withhold their consent".<ref name="whqlibdoc.who.int" />

In countries where [[fornication]] or [[adultery]] are illegal, victims of rape can be charged criminally.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-21595814 |title=BBC News—Maldives girl to get 100 lashes for pre-marital sex |access-date=March 31, 2015 |date=February 26, 2013 |last1=Lang |first1=Olivia}}</ref>

=== War rape ===

{{Main|War rape}}

[[File:DRC raped women.jpg|thumb|alt=Female rape victims stand in front of a "peace hut". |Meeting of victims of [[sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]]]

Sexism is manifested by the crime of rape targeting women civilians and soldiers, committed by soldiers, combatants or civilians during armed conflict, war or military occupation. This arises from the long tradition of women being seen as sexual booty and from the misogynistic culture of military training.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=103844570 |title=The Nation: The Plight of Women Soldiers |date=May 6, 2009 |website=[[NPR]] |access-date=March 31, 2015 |last1=Benedict |first1=Helen}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3848/ |title=Why Soldiers Rape |journal=[[In These Times (publication)|In These Times]] |access-date=March 31, 2015 |date=August 13, 2008 |archive-date=May 18, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518145847/http://inthesetimes.com/article/3848/}}</ref>