Editing Seed (section)

== Seed production ==
Seed production in natural plant populations varies widely from year to year in response to weather variables, insects and diseases, and internal cycles within the plants themselves. Over a 20-year period, for example, forests composed of [[loblolly pine]] and [[shortleaf pine]] produced from 0 to nearly 5.5 million sound pine seeds per hectare.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Cain M.D., Shelton M.G. | year = 2001 | title = Twenty years of natural loblolly and shortleaf pine seed production on the Crossett Experimental Forest in southeastern Arkansas | journal = Southern Journal of Applied Forestry | volume = 25 | issue = 1| pages = 40–45 | doi = 10.1093/sjaf/25.1.40 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Over this period, there were six bumper, five poor, and nine good seed crops, when evaluated for production of adequate [[seedling]]s for natural forest reproduction.

=== Edible seeds ===
{{further|List of edible seeds}}

Many seeds are edible and the majority of human calories comes from seeds,<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Sabelli, P.A.|author2=Larkins, B.A.|year=2009|title=The Development of Endosperm in Grasses|journal=Plant Physiology|volume=149|issue=1|pages=14–26|doi=10.1104/pp.108.129437|pmid=19126691|pmc=2613697}}</ref> especially from [[cereal]]s, [[legume]]s and [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]]. Seeds also provide most [[cooking oil]]s, many [[beverage]]s and [[spice]]s and some important [[food additive]]s. In different seeds the [[Embryo#Embryos of plants and animals|seed embryo]] or the [[endosperm]] dominates and provides most of the [[nutrient]]s. The storage [[protein]]s of the embryo and endosperm differ in their [[amino acid]] content and physical properties. For example, the [[gluten]] of wheat, important in providing the [[Elasticity (physics)|elastic]] property to bread [[dough]] is strictly an endosperm protein.

Seeds are used to propagate many crops such as cereals, legumes, [[forestry|forest trees]], [[turfgrass]]es, and [[pasture]] grasses. Particularly in developing countries, a major constraint faced is the inadequacy of the marketing channels to get the seed to poor farmers.<ref>G. Mumby [http://www.fao.org/docrep/V4450E/V4450E00.htm Seed Marketing] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090909154533/http://www.fao.org/docrep/v4450e/V4450E00.htm |date=2009-09-09 }}, FAO, Rome</ref> Thus the use of farmer-retained seed remains quite common.

Seeds are also eaten by animals ([[seed predation]]), and are also fed to [[livestock]] or provided as [[birdseed]].

=== Poison and food safety ===
{{further|Category:Plant toxins}}

While some seeds are edible, others are harmful, poisonous or deadly.<ref>Chia Joo Suan, "[http://kuali.com/news/story.asp?file=/2006/7/5/kuali/14689925&sec=Kuali Seeds of Doubt: Food Safety] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429185024/http://kuali.com/news/story.asp?file=%2F2006%2F7%2F5%2Fkuali%2F14689925&sec=Kuali |date=2008-04-29 }}"</ref> Plants and seeds often contain [[chemical compounds]] to discourage [[herbivores]] and [[seed predation|seed predators]]. In some cases, these compounds simply taste bad (such as in [[Mustard (condiment)|mustard]]), but other compounds are toxic or break down into toxic compounds within the [[digestive system]]. Children, being smaller than adults, are more susceptible to poisoning by plants and seeds.<ref>Clelland, Mike. "[http://www.healthychild.net/articles/sf21plants.html Poisonous Plants and Seeds] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012180646/http://healthychild.net/articles/sf21plants.html |date=2007-10-12 }}", ''Healthy Child Care''</ref>

A deadly poison, [[ricin]], comes from seeds of the [[castor bean]].   Reported lethal doses are anywhere from two to eight seeds,<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://plantanswers.tamu.edu/publications/poison/poison.html|title=Poisonous Plants and Plant Parts – Archives – Aggie Horticulture|author=Martin Anderson, Texas AgriLife Extension Service|work=tamu.edu|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070908175245/http://plantanswers.tamu.edu/publications/poison/poison.html|archive-date=2007-09-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wedin GP |author2=Neal JS |author3=Everson GW |author4=Krenzelok EP |title=Castor bean poisoning |journal=Am J Emerg Med |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=259–261 |date=May 1986 |pmid=3964368 |doi=10.1016/0735-6757(86)90080-X }}</ref>
though only a few deaths have been reported when castor beans have been ingested by animals.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Albretsen JC |author2=Gwaltney-Brant SM |author3=Khan SA |title=Evaluation of castor bean toxicosis in dogs: 98 cases |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=229–233 |year=2000 |pmid=10825094 |url=http://www.jaaha.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10825094 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120802123051/http://www.jaaha.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10825094 |archive-date=2012-08-02 |doi=10.5326/15473317-36-3-229 }}</ref>

In addition, seeds containing [[amygdalin]]&nbsp;– [[apple]], [[apricot]], [[bitter almond]],<ref name="almond">{{cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/almond-almond-oil.html|title=Almond/Almond Oil|work=drugs.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718053633/https://www.drugs.com/npp/almond-almond-oil.html|archive-date=2017-07-18}}</ref> [[peach]], [[plum]], [[cherry]], [[quince]], and others&nbsp;– when consumed in sufficient amounts, may cause [[cyanide poisoning]].<ref name="almond" /><ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A46703-2005Jan4.html Wolke, RL. ''Seeds of Anxiety'' Washington Post January 5, 2005] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915124054/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A46703-2005Jan4.html |date=September 15, 2017 }}</ref>
Other seeds that contain poisons include [[annona]], [[cotton]], [[custard apple]], [[datura]], uncooked [[durian]], [[golden chain]], [[Horse-chestnut (tree)|horse-chestnut]], [[Delphinium|larkspur]], [[locoweed]], [[lychee]], [[nectarine]], [[rambutan]], [[rosary pea]], [[sour sop]], [[sugar apple]], [[wisteria]], and [[Taxus|yew]].<ref name="auto" /><ref>[http://kuali.com/news/story.asp?file=/2006/7/5/kuali/14689925&sec=Kuali Chia Joo Suan Food Safety: Seeds of doubt] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429185024/http://kuali.com/news/story.asp?file=%2F2006%2F7%2F5%2Fkuali%2F14689925&sec=Kuali |date=2008-04-29 }}</ref> The seeds of the [[strychnine tree]] are also poisonous, containing the poison [[strychnine]].

The seeds of many legumes, including the common bean (''[[Phaseolus vulgaris]]''), contain proteins called [[lectins]] which can cause gastric distress if the beans are eaten without [[cooking]]. The common bean and many others, including the [[soybean]], also contain [[trypsin inhibitors]] which interfere with the action of the digestive enzyme [[trypsin]]. Normal cooking processes degrade lectins and trypsin inhibitors to harmless forms.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dhurandhar NV |author2=Chang KC |title=Effect of Cooking on Firmness, Trypsin Inhibitors, Lectins and Cystine/Cysteine content of Navy and Red Kidney Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) |journal=J Food Sci |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=470–474 |year=1990 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1990.tb06789.x |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119368153/abstract|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105201015/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119368153/abstract|archive-date=2013-01-05}}</ref>

=== Other uses ===
[[Cotton]] [[fiber]] grows attached to [[Gossypium|cotton plant]] seeds. Other seed fibers are from [[Ceiba pentandra|kapok]] and [[milkweed]].

Many important nonfood oils are extracted from seeds. [[Linseed oil]] is used in paints. Oil from [[jojoba]] and [[crambe]] are similar to [[whale oil]].

Seeds are the source of some medicines including [[castor oil]], [[tea tree oil]] and the quack cancer drug [[Amygdalin|Laetrile]].

Many seeds have been used as [[bead]]s in necklaces and rosaries including [[Job's tears]], [[Chinaberry]], [[Abrus precatorius|rosary pea]], and [[castor bean]]. However, the latter three are also poisonous.

Other seed uses include:
* Seeds once used as weights for [[Weighing scale|balances]].
* Seeds used as toys by children, such as for the game [[Conkers]].
* Resin from ''[[Clusia]] rosea'' seeds used to caulk boats.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Effects of Invasive Clusia rosea in Hawai'i – Nick Schlotterbeck |url=https://sites.psu.edu/nschlott/2022/09/03/effects-of-invasive-clusia-rosea-in-hawaii/#:~:text=The%20flowers%20eventually%20turn%20into%20green,%20poisonous%20fruits,historically%20been%20used%20to%20caulk%20boats%20(Gilman,%201993). |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=sites.psu.edu}}</ref>
* [[Nematicide]] from [[milkweed]] seeds.
* [[Cottonseed meal]] used as animal feed and [[fertilizer]].