Editing Reformation (section)

==New waves==

===English reformation under Henry VIII===
{{Main|English Reformation}}

[[File:1491 Henry VIII.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A round-faced bearded middle-aged man wearing a hat decorated with a large feather|''Portrait of {{nowrap|King Henry VIII}}'' (early 1530s) by [[Joos van Cleve]]]]

In England, reformist clerics such as [[Thomas Bilney]] (d. 1531) and [[Robert Barnes (martyr)|Robert Barnes]] (d. 1540) spread Luther's theology among Cambridge and Oxford scholars and students.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=284}} The young priest [[William Tyndale]] (d. 1536) translated the New Testament to English using Erasmus's [[Novum Instrumentum omne#Third edition|Latin-Greek edition]].{{sfn|Marshall|2022|pp=250–251}} By around 1535, more than 15,000 copies of his translation had been distributed in secret.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=181}} Tyndale's biographer [[David Daniell (author)|David Daniell]] (d. 2016) writes that the translation "gave the English language a plain prose style of the very greatest importance", and his "influence has been greater than any other writer in English".{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=299}}

The Lord Chancellor Cardinal [[Thomas Wolsey]] (d. 1530) had strong links to the Roman Curia, he was unable to achieve the [[Declaration of nullity|annulment]] of the marriage of {{nowrap|Henry VIII}} and the middle-aged [[Catherine of Aragon]] (d. 1536).{{refn|group=note|{{nowrap|Charles V}} was Catherine's nephew, and after the sack of Rome by imperial troops Pope {{nowrap|Clement VII}} did not dare to offend Charles by annulling the marriage of his aunt.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=285}}}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=284–285}} They had needed a papal dispensation to marry because Catherine was the widow of Henry's brother [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]] (d. 1502). As she had not produced a male heir, Henry became convinced that their [[incest]]uous marriage drew the [[Divine retribution|wrath of God]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=193}}

Henry charged a group of scholars including [[Thomas Cranmer]] (d. 1556) with collecting arguments in favour of the annulment. They concluded that the English kings had always had authority over the clergy, and the [[Book of Leviticus]] forbade marriage between a man and his brother's widow in all circumstances.{{sfn|Marshall|2022|p=253}} In 1530, [[English Reformation Parliament|the Parliament]] limited the jurisdiction of church courts. Wolsey had meanwhile lost Henry's favour and died, but More tried to convince Henry to abandon his plan about the annulment of his marriage. In contrast, Cranmer and Henry's new chief advisor [[Thomas Cromwell]] (d. 1540) argued that the marriage could be annulled without papal interference.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=285}} Henry who had fallen in love with Catherine's lady-in-waiting [[Anne Boleyn]] (d. 1536) decided to marry her even if the marriage could lead to a total break with the papacy.{{sfn|Marshall|2022|p=252}} During a visit in Germany, Cranmer [[Margarete Cranmer|married]] but kept his marriage in secret. On his return to England, Henry appointed him as the new [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], and the Holy See confirmed the appointment.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=194}}

The links between the English Church and the papacy were severed by Acts of Parliament.{{refn|group=note|Henry's lawyers took inspiration from the {{lang|la|[[Defensor pacis]]}} ('The Defender of Peace'), a legal treatise by [[Marsiglio of Padua]] (d. {{circa}} 1342) who argued that the Church was subordinated to the state.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=302–303}}}}{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=110}} In April 1533, the [[Ecclesiastical Appeals Act 1532|Act of Appeals]] decreed that only English courts had jurisdiction in cases of last wills, marriages and grants to the Church, emphasizing that "this realm of England is an Empire".{{sfn|Marshall|2022|p=254}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=285–286}} A special church court annulled the marriage of Henry and Catherine, and declared their only daughter [[Mary I of England|Mary]] (d. 1558) [[Legitimacy (family law)|illegitimate]] in May 1533.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=180}} {{nowrap|Pope Clement VII}} did not sanction the judgement and excommunicated Henry.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=302}} Ignoring the papal ban, Henry married Anne, and she gave birth to a daughter [[Elizabeth I|Elizabeth]] (d. 1603).{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=286}} Anne was a staunch supporter of the Reformation, and mainly her nominees were appointed to the vacant bishoprics between 1532 and 1536.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=194}} In 1534, the [[Act of Supremacy]] declared the king the "only supreme head of the [[Church of England]]".{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=110}} Many of those who refused to swear a special oath of loyalty to the king—65 from about 400 defendants—were executed. More and [[John Fisher]], [[Bishop of Rochester]] (d. 1535) were among the most prominent victims.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=286}} Cromwell gradually convinced Henry that a "purification" of church life was needed. The number of [[Calendar of saints|feast days]] was reduced by about 75 per cent, pilgrimages were forbidden, [[Dissolution of the monasteries|all monasteries were dissolved]] and their property was seized by the Crown.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=181}}

The [[Parliament of Ireland]] passed similar acts but they could only be fully implemented in the [[The Pale|lands under direct English rule]]. Resistance against the Reformation was vigorous. In 1534, the powerful [[Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare|Lord Thomas FitzGerald]] (d. 1537) staged a revolt. Although it was crushed, thereafter Henry's government did not introduce drastic changes in the [[Church of Ireland]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=196–197}} In England, the dissolution of monasteries caused a popular revolt known as the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]]. The "pilgrims" demanded the dismissal of  "heretic" royal advisors but they were overcame by royalist forces.{{sfn|Marshall|2009|pp=255–256}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=287}} The principal articles of faith of the Church of England were summarized in the ''[[Six Articles (1539)|Six Articles]]'' in 1539. It reaffirmed several elements of traditional theology, such as transubstantiation and clerical celibacy.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=303}}

As Anne Boleyn did not give birth to a son, she lost Henry's favour. She was executed for adultery, and Elizabeth was declared a bastard. Henry's only son [[Edward VI|Edward]] (d. 1553) was born to Henry's third wife [[Jane Seymour]] (d. 1537). In 1543, an [[Third Succession Act|Act of Parliament]] returned Mary and Elizabeth to the line of the succession behind Edward.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|pp=181–182}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=195, 279}} Henry [[Rough Wooing|attacked Scotland]] to enforce the marriage of Edward and the infant [[Mary, Queen of Scots]] ({{reign|1542|1567}}) but her mother [[Mary of Guise]] (d. 1560) reinforced Scotland's [[Auld Alliance|traditional alliance]] with France.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=295–296}} The priest [[George Wishart]] (d. 1546) was the first to preach Zwinglian theology in Scotland. After he was burned for heresy, his followers, among them [[John Knox]] (d. 1572), assassinated Cardinal [[David Beaton]], [[Archbishop of St Andrews]] (d. 1546), but French troops crushed their revolt.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=316–317}}

===Münster===

[[File:MuensterUnderSiege1534.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|alt=A fortified town on a river surrounded by soldiers|[[Münster]] besieged by [[Prince-Bishopric of Münster|Prince-bishop]] [[Franz von Waldeck]]]]

Having been banished from Sweden, Hoffman was wandering in southern Germany and the Low Countries. He turned Anabaptist{{sfn|Haude|2006|p=244}} but suspended adult baptism to avoid persecution.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=199}} He denied that Christ had become flesh,{{refn|group=note|The lay preacher Clement Ziegler was the first to proclaim (in 1524) that Christ had had a celestial body before Mary gave birth to him. Hoffman went as far as comparing Mary with a bag, likely unaware that he adopted a metaphor from the Gnostic theologian [[Valentinus (Gnostic)|Valentinus]] (d. {{circa}}  180). According to Valentinus, Christ passed through Mary "as water through a pipe".{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=182}}}} and preached that [[Revelation 7|144,000 elect]] were to gather in Strasbourg to witness [[Second Coming|Christ's return]] in 1533.{{sfn|Haude|2006|p=244}} His followers known as Melchiorites swarmed into the city, presenting an enormous challenge for its charity provisions. Hoffman also came to Strasbourg, but the authorities arrested him. After the deadline for Christ's return passed uneventfully, many disappointed Melchiorites accepted the leadership of a charismatic Dutch baker [[Jan Matthijszoon]] (d. 1534). He blamed Hoffman for the suspension of adult baptism, and proclaimed the city of [[Münster]] as the [[New Jerusalem]]. Although Münster was an [[Prince-Bishopric of Münster|episcopal see]], the town council had installed a Protestant pastor [[Bernhard Rothmann]]  (d. {{circa}} 1535) in clear defiance to the new prince-bishop [[Franz von Waldeck]] ({{reign|1532|1553}}). Those who expected a radical social transformation from the Reformation flocked to Münster. The radicals assumed full control of the town in February 1534.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=183, 199–200}}

Bishop Franz and his allies, among them Philip of Hessen, attacked Münster but could not capture it. Under Matthijszoon's rule, private property and the use of money was outlawed in the town. Believing that God would protect him, Matthijszoon made a sortie against the enemy, but he was killed. Another charismatic Dutchman, [[John of Leiden]] (d. 1536)—a former tailor—succeeded him. Leiden announced that he was receiving revelations from God, and proclaimed himself "king of righteousness" and "the ruler of the new [[Zion]]". Church and state were united, and all sinners were executed.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=208–209}} Leiden legalized [[polygyny]], and ordered all women who were twelve or older to marry. The protracted siege demoralized the defenders, and Münster fell through treason on 25 June 1535. After the fall of Münster, most Anabaptist groups adopted a pacifist approach under the leadership of a former priest [[Menno Simons]] (d. 1561).{{sfn|Haude|2006|p=245}} He associated the Anabaptist communities with the New Jerusalem. His followers would be known as [[Mennonites]].{{sfn|Haude|2006|p=253}} Nearly all Anabaptist communities were destroyed in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland,{{sfn|Marshall|2009|p=114}} but moderate Anabaptist groups survived in [[East Frisia]],{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=287}} and were mainly tolerated in England.{{sfn|Haude|2006|pp=253–254}}

===Calvin and the ''Institutes of the Christian Religion''===

[[File:MCC-31320 Portret van Johannes Calvijn (1509-1564)-uitsnede.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.8|alt=A long-faced bearded middle-aged man wearing a hat|''Portrait of John Calvin'' ({{circa}} 1550) by an unknown French painter]]

The future reformer [[John Calvin]] (d. 1564) was destined to a church career by his father, a lay administrator of the [[Ancient Diocese of Noyon|Bishopric of Noyon]] in France.{{refn|group=note|Calvin was only twelve when received a benefice at the [[Noyon Cathedral]].{{sfn|Eire|2022|p=98}}}} He studied theology at the Sorbonne, and law at [[University of Orléans|Orléans]] and [[University of Bourges|Bourges]]. He read treatises by Lefèvre and Lefèvre's disciples at the newly established {{lang|fr|[[Collège de France|Collège Royal]]}}, and abandoned Catholicism under the influence of his Protestant friends, particularly the physician [[Nicolas Cop]] (d. 1540).{{sfn|Eire|2022|pp=98–101}} The persecution of French Protestants intensified after the so-called [[Affair of the Placards]]. In October 1534, placards (or posters) attacking the Mass were placed at many places, including the door to the royal bedchamber in [[Château d'Amboise]]. In retaliation, twenty-four Protestants were executed, and many intellectuals had to leave France.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=188–189}}

Calvin was one of the religious refugees. He settled in Basel and completed the first version of his principal theological treatise, the ''[[Institutes of the Christian Religion]]'' in 1536. He would be rewriting and expanding it several times until 1559. As the historian [[Carlos Eire]] writes, "Calvin's text was blessed with a lawyer's penchant for precision, a humanist's love for poetic expression and rhetorical flourishes, and a theologian's respect for paradox".{{sfn|Eire|2022|pp=102–103}} With Eire's words, Calvin "revived [[Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image|the jealous God]] of the Old Testament". He warned King Francis that the persecution of the faithful would incur the wrath of God upon him but sharply distanced moderate Protestants from Anabaptists.{{refn|group=note|In the preface to the ''Institutes'', Calvin described moderate Protestants as examples of "chastity, generousity, mercy, continence, patience, modesty, and all other virtues",{{sfn|Eire|2022|p=103}} contrasting them with the Anabaptists who in his view "only wished to govern themselves in accordance with their foolish brains, under the pretence of wishing to obey God"{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=190}}}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=190}}{{sfn|Eire|2022|pp=103–104}} Already the first edition of the ''Institutes'' contained references to two distinguishing elements of Calvin's theology, both traceable back to Augustine: his conviction that the [[original sin]] had completely corrupted human nature, and his strong belief in "[[Predestination in Calvinism|double predestination]]". In his view, only strict social and ecclesiastic control could prevent sins and crimes,{{sfn|Eire|2022|pp=105–107}} and God did not only decide who were saved but also those who were destined to damnation.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=156}}{{sfn|Kingdon|2006|p=113}}

In 1536, Farel convinced Calvin to settle in [[Geneva]]. Their attempts to implement radical reforms in discipline brought them into conflicts with those who feared that the new measures would lead to clerical despotism.{{sfn|Kingdon|2006|p=106}} After they refused to acknowledge the urban magistrates' claim to intervene in the process of excommunication, they were banished from the town. Calvin moved to Strasbourg where Bucer made a profound impact on him.{{sfn|Eire|2022|p=109}} Under Bucer's influence, Calvin adopted an intermediate position on the Eucharist between Luther and Zwingli, denying Christ's presence in it but acknowledging that the rite included a real spiritual communion with Christ.{{sfn|Eire|2022|p=109}}

{{Quote box
 |title     = Calvin on the "double pedestrination" 
 |quote     = No one who wishes to be thought religious dares simply deny predestination, by which God adopts some to hope of life, and sentences others to eternal death...For all are not created in an equal condition; rather eternal life is fore-ordained for some, eternal damnation for others. 
 |author    = John Calvin
 |source    = ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' (1559){{sfn|Eire|2022|p=107}}
 |align     = right
 |width     = 25%
 |bgcolor   = #F5FAFF
 |title_bg  = #CEE0F2
 |qalign    = left
 |salign    = right
 }}

After Calvin and Farel left Geneva, no pastors were able to assume the leadership of the local Protestant community. Fearing of a Catholic restoration, the urban magistrates convinced Calvin to come back to Geneva in 1541. Months after his return, the town council enacted ''The Ecclesiastical Ordinances'', a detailed regulation summarizing Calvin's proposals for church administration.{{sfn|Kingdon|2006|pp=106–107}} The ''Ordinances'' established four church offices. The pastors were responsible for pastoral care and discipline; the doctors instructed believers in the faith; the [[Elder (Christianity)|elders]] (or presbyters) were authorized to "watch over the life of each person" and to report those who lived a "disorderly" life to the pastors; and [[deacon]]s were appointed to administer the town's charity. All townspeople were obliged to regularly attend church services. Calvin established a special court called the consistory to hear cases of moral lapse such as [[Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain|blasphemy]], adultery, disrespect to authorities, gossiping, witchcraft and participation in rites considered superstitious by church authorities. The consistory was composed of the pastors, the elders, and an urban magistrate, and the townspeople were encouraged to report sinful acts to it. First-time offenders mainly received lenient sentences such as fines, but repeat offenders were banished from the town or executed.{{sfn|Eire|2022|pp=110–112}} Resistance against the ''Ordinances'' was significant. Many continued visit shrines and pray to saints, while many patricians insisted on liberal traditional customs for which Calvin called them "[[Libertines (Geneva)|Libertines]]".{{sfn|Eire|2022|pp=112–113}}

===Reformation in Britain===

{{See also|Enclosure|History of the Puritans under Elizabeth I}}

{{nowrap|Henry VIII}} died on 27 January 1547. His nine-year-old son {{nowrap|Edward VI}} ({{reign|1547|1553}}) succeeded him, and Edward's maternal uncle [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]] (d. 1552) assumed power as [[Lord Protector]]. Somerset halted the persecution of religious dissidents, making England a safe haven for religious refugees from all over Europe. They established their own congregations, served by prominent pastors, such as the Polish [[Jan Łaski]] (d. 1560) and the Spanish [[Casiodoro de Reina]] (d. 1594). Most of them adhered to Reformed theology.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=306}} Cranmer introduced further religious reforms: images were removed from the churches, the doctrine of purgatory was rejected, and all endowments for prayers for the dead (or [[chantry|chantries]]) were confiscated. With the introduction of Cranmer's ''[[Book of Common Prayer (1549)|Book of Common Prayer]]'', the Mass was replaced by a vernacular liturgy.{{refn|group=note|The new Anglican liturgy was heavily influenced by Evangelical church services, and Archbishop Hermann of Cologne's liturgical proposals.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=249}}}}{{sfn|Marshall|2022|p=261}}

Marshall notes, that it is "safe to say that the greater part of the population disliked what was taking place". The liturgical changes caused popular revolts [[Prayer Book Rebellion|in Devon and Cornwall]] and other places but they were quickly suppressed, just like the riot against the dissolution of chantries in East Yorkshire. Even [[Kett's Rebellion|in Norfolk]], where the peasants adopted a Protestant rhetoric, they assembled under the banners of their parish saints.{{sfn|Marshall|2022|pp=263–264}} Somerset's opponents take advantage of the unrest to get rid of him. He was replaced by [[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland|John Dudley]] (d. 1553) who was made [[Duke of Northumberland]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=249}} Cranmer continued the liturgical reforms, and the [[Book of Common Prayer (1552)|new version]] of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' rejected the dogma of transubstantiation.{{sfn|Marshall|2022|pp=261–262}} He completed the ''[[Forty-two Articles]]'', a new confessional document combining elements of Reformed and Evangelical theologies.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=307}}

Edward died of tuberculosis on 6 July 1553. He had designated his Protestant relative [[Jane Grey]] (d. 1554) as his heir to prevent the succession of his Catholic sister Mary, but most English remained loyal to the Tudor dynasty. Initially, {{nowrap|Mary I}} ({{reign|1553|1558}}) took advantage of her royal prerogatives to dismiss married clergy, appoint Catholic priests to bishoprics, and restore the Mass.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=308–309}} She had to make concessions to landowners who had seized church property to achieve the restoration of papal supremacy by the Parliament in November 1554. Cranmer was forced to sign six documents condemning his own acts but withdrew his recantations while being burned for heresy in public in March 1556. Reginald Pole was appointed as the new archbishop of Canterbury, but he was accused of heresy after his old enemy Carafa had been elected pope as {{nowrap|Paul IV}} ({{reign|1555|1559}}).{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=273–276}} The restoration of the altars and images gained popular support in many places, but recatholisation faced significant resistance—around 300 Protestants were burned, and about 1,000 were forced into exile during Mary's reign.{{sfn|Marshall|2022|pp=268–269}} Her marriage with {{nowrap|Philip II}} of Spain was unpopular, and she died childless on 17 November 1558.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=310}}

Mary's sister and successor {{nowrap|Elizabeth I}} ({{reign|1558|1603}}) sought a {{lang|la|[[via media]]}} ('middle way') between religious extremists. Her [[1st Parliament of Elizabeth I|first Parliament]] restored the royal leadership of the Church of England, and introduced a [[Book of Common Prayer (1559)|modified version]] of the ''Book of Common Prayer''. The Anglican liturgy retained elements of Catholic ceremonies, such as priestly vestments, and contained ambiguous sentences about the Eucharist, suggesting the real presence of Jesus's Blood and Body for conservatives, and a memorial service for reformers. Elizabeth supervised the revision of the Anglican articles of faith in person. The subsequent ''[[Thirty-nine Articles]]'' were formulated in a way that adherents to the major mainstream Protestant theologies could accept them. However, the most resolute Protestants were determined to purify the Church of England from the remnants of Catholic ceremonies, hence they were called [[Puritans]]. They were especially influential at the universities. Many of them rejected the authority of bishops, the Presbyterians emphasized the equal status of all priests, whereas the Congregationalists wanted to strengthen the position of local communities in church administration.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=310-314}}

England's recatholisation contributed to the triumph of Reformation in Scotland. [[James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault|James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran]] (d. 1575), heir presumptive to Queen Mary of the Scots, assumed the leadership of the Protestant lords. Incited by Knox's passionate sermons, anti-Catholic sentiments led to a popular revolt of elementary force in 1559, causing the destruction of monasteries and friaries.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=283–286}}

===Servetus and the ''Restoration of Christianity''===

[[File:Servet Christianismi restitutio.gif|thumb|right|alt=A page with printed text|Title page of the ''Restoration of Christianity'' (1553) by [[Michael Servetus]]]]

The first radicals who rejected the dogma of Trinity were put on trial in Augsburg in 1527. A scholar from [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]] [[Michael Servetus]] (d. 1553) adopted [[Nontrinitarianism|antitrinitarian]] theology in the 1530s. MacCulloch proposes that Servetus rejected the Trinity, a dogma extremely offensive to Jews and Muslims, because he wanted to present Christianity as a [[Universalism|universal religion]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=182–183}} After studying medicine and anatomy in Paris,{{refn|group=note|Servetus was one of the first to discover the [[pulmonary circulation]].{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=253}}}} Servetus became the court physician of the elderly [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vienne|Catholic archbishop of Vienne]] in southern France. While in [[Vienne, Isère|Vienne]], he sent the first (unpublished) versions of his theological work, the ''Restoration of Christianity'' to Calvin. He disrespectfully described the Trinity as a three-headed [[Cerberus]], attacked infant baptism, and denied original sin. He also wrote insulting comments on Calvin's ''Institutes''. The ''Restoration'' was published anonymously in Lyon in 1553, but the Catholic Inquisition identified Servetus as its author by using documents from Calvin's personal files. Servetus fled from France but attended a church service delivered by Calvin in Geneva. He was recognised and arrested, and the urban authorities sentenced him to death with Calvin's consent. He was burned at the stake on 27 October 1553.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=253}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=237–238}}

Bucer, Melanchthon and other leading Protestant theologians agreed with Servetus's execution. Only the Basel-based schoolmaster and Bible translator [[Sebastian Castellio]] (d. 1563) condemned it in a manifesto for religious toleration. He also addressed a letter to Calvin, echoing Erasmus his [[Erasmus#Death_in_Basel|posthumous benefactor]], stating "To burn a heretic is not to defend a doctrine, but to kill a man".{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=254–255}} Erasmus was a Trinitarian himself, but had noted that the theological formulation had [[Development of doctrine|developed]] from the time of the Apostles, which fueled many subsequent antitrinitarians who took this to mean it that the idea was unbiblical.  {{refn|group=note|Erasmus' ideas also were re-expressed in Basel by exiled Italian reformer [[Celio_Secondo_Curione|Cælio Secondo Curione]] who in 1554 produced a book on God's mercy ''Coelii secundi curionis de amplitudine beati regni dei''. Curiusly, this book was re-write of a re-re-translation of Erasmus' 1524 ''[[Works_of_Erasmus#Concio_de_immensa_Dei_misericordia_(1524)|De immensa Dei misericordia]]'' which presented an [[De_libero_arbitrio_diatribe_sive_collatio#Background|alternative]] to the Lutheran/Calvinistic emphasis on pre-destination: God was not arbitrary but merciful.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Overell |first1=M. Anne |title=The Cambridge Connection and the ‘Strangeness’ of Italian Reformers, 1547–1556 |journal=The Cambridge Connection in Tudor England |date=29 November 2021 |pages=180–204 |doi=10.1163/9789004382251_008}}</ref>}}

Antitrinitarian theology survived among Italian exiles in Basel. [[Lelio Sozzini]] (d. 1562), a scholar from [[Siena]], argued that Biblical texts calling Jesus "[[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]]" did not refer to his divinity but to his faultless humanity. His nephew, [[Fausto Sozzini]] (d. 1604) rejected [[original sin]] and the [[Satisfaction theory of atonement|theory of satisfaction]] (the concept that Christ's sufferings brought about atonement to God the Father for the original sin). Their followers became known as [[Socinians]].{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=228}}

After Servetus's execution Calvin strengthened his position as the leading figure of Reformed Protestantism.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=238}} In Geneva, the Libertines rose up but they were quickly overcame, and forced into exile or executed. The confiscation of the property of the wealthy [[Ami Perrin]] (d. 1561) and his family provided the city with funds to create an academy. It served both as a preparatory school for local youths and as a [[seminary]] for Reformed ministers. Calvin's chief assistant [[Theodore Beza]] (d. 1605) was appointed as its first rector. The academy quickly developed into a principal center of theologian training for students from all over Europe, earning Geneva the nickname "the Protestant Rome". It was especially popular among French Protestants.{{sfn|Eire|2022|pp=120–121}}