Editing Palm oil (section)

==Nutrition, composition and health==
Palm oil is a food staple in many cuisines, contributing significant calories and plant lipids.<ref name="WHO Technical Report"/><ref name="Economist 2011">{{cite news |title=The other oil spill |url=http://www.economist.com/node/16423833 |newspaper=The Economist |date=24 June 2010 |access-date=12 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209054414/http://www.economist.com/node/16423833 |archive-date=9 February 2013  }}</ref><ref name="Bradsher">{{cite news |title=A New, Global Oil Quandary: Costly Fuel Means Costly Calories |last1=Bradsher |first1=Keith |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/19/business/worldbusiness/19palmoil.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=19 January 2008 |access-date=12 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101152051/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/19/business/worldbusiness/19palmoil.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 |archive-date=1 January 2015  }}</ref> Globally, humans consumed an average of {{convert|7.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of palm oil per person in 2015.<ref name="bloomberg"/> Although the relationship of palm oil consumption to disease risk has been previously assessed, the quality of the [[clinical research]] specifically assessing palm oil effects has been generally poor.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=26393565|pmc=6331788|year=2015|last1=Mancini|first1=A|title=Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on Health|journal=Molecules|volume=20|issue=9|pages=17339–61|last2=Imperlini|first2=E|last3=Nigro|first3=E|last4=Montagnese|first4=C|last5=Daniele|first5=A|last6=Orrù|first6=S|last7=Buono|first7=P|doi=10.3390/molecules200917339|doi-access=free}}</ref> Consequently, research has focused on the deleterious effects of palm oil and palmitic acid consumption as sources of saturated fat content in edible oils, leading to conclusions that palm oil and saturated fats should be replaced with [[polyunsaturated fat]]s in the diet.<ref name="aha">{{cite journal|pmid=28620111|year=2017|title=Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory from the American Heart Association|journal=Circulation|volume=136|issue=3|pages=e1–e23|doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510|vauthors=Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JH, Appel LJ, Creager MA, Kris-Etherton PM, Miller M, Rimm EB, Rudel LL, Robinson JG, Stone NJ, Van Horn LV |s2cid=367602|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="ejcn">{{cite journal|pmid=19424216|year=2009|last1=Mozaffarian|first1=D|title=Quantitative effects on cardiovascular risk factors and coronary heart disease risk of replacing partially hydrogenated vegetable oils with other fats and oils|journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=63|pages=S22–33|last2=Clarke|first2=R|issue=Suppl 2 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602976|s2cid=34725070|url=http://www.healthyliving.gr/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Quantitative-effects-on-cardiovascular-risk-factors-and-coronary-heart-disease-risk-of-replacing-partially-hydrogenated-vegetable-oils-with-other-fats-and-oils.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>

A 2015 [[meta-analysis]] and 2017 advisory from the [[American Heart Association]] indicated that palm oil is among foods supplying dietary saturated fat which increases blood levels of [[low-density lipoprotein|LDL cholesterol]] and increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, leading to recommendations for reduced use or elimination of dietary palm oil in favor of consuming [[Hydrogenation#Food industry|unhydrogenated]] [[vegetable oil]]s.<ref name=aha/><ref name="Sun">{{cite journal | last1=Sun | first1=Ye | last2=Neelakantan | first2=Nithya | last3=Wu | first3=Yi | last4=Lote-Oke | first4=Rashmi | last5=Pan | first5=An | last6=van Dam | first6=Rob M | title=Palm Oil Consumption Increases LDL Cholesterol Compared with Vegetable Oils Low in Saturated Fat in a Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials | journal=The Journal of Nutrition| volume=145 | issue=7 | date=20 May 2015 | issn=0022-3166 | doi=10.3945/jn.115.210575 | pmid=25995283 | pages=1549–1558| doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2019 meta-analysis found no association between total fat, saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acid, and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake with risk of cardiovascular disease.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Yongjian |last2=Bo |first2=Yacong |last3=Liu |first3=Yanhua |date=2019-04-06 |title=Dietary total fat, fatty acids intake, and risk of cardiovascular disease: a dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies|journal=Lipids in Health and Disease |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=91 |doi=10.1186/s12944-019-1035-2 |doi-access=free |issn=1476-511X |pmc=6451787 |pmid=30954077}}</ref>

Glycidyl fatty acid esters (GE), [[3-MCPD]] and 2-MCPD, are found especially in palm oils and palm fats because of their refining at high temperatures (approx. {{convert|200|C|F|abbr=}}).<ref name=":1">{{cite web|date=3 May 2016|title=Process contaminants in vegetable oils and foods|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/process-contaminants-vegetable-oils-and-foods|access-date=21 December 2020|website=European Food Safety Authority}}</ref> Since [[glycidol]], the parent compound of GE, is considered genotoxic and carcinogenic, the [[European Food Safety Authority|EFSA]] did not set a safe level for GE. According to the chair of the CONTAM (EFSA's expert Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain), "The exposure to GE of babies consuming solely [[infant formula]] is a particular concern as this is up to ten times what would be considered of low concern for public health".<ref name=":1" /> The EFSA's tolerable daily intake (TDI) of [[3-MCPD]] and its fatty acid esters was set to 0.8 micrograms per kilogram of body weight per day (μg/kg bw/day) in 2016 and increased to 2&nbsp;μg/kg bw/day in 2017, based on evidence linking this substance to organ damage in animal tests and on possible adverse effects on the [[kidney]] and on [[male fertility]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite web|date=10 January 2018|title=Revised safe intake for 3-MCPD in vegetable oils and food|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/180110|access-date=21 December 2020|website=European Food Safety Authority}}</ref> According to the EFSA, there is not enough data to set a safe level for 2-MCPD.<ref name=":1" /> As of December 2022, the [[Malaysian Palm Oil Board]] issued an amendment to its palm oil licensing conditions to include maximum limits of 1.25 ppm and 1 ppm, respectively, to the amount of 3-MCPDE and GE that can be found in processed palm oil.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MENU E-QC |url=http://eqc.mpob.gov.my/main.php |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=eqc.mpob.gov.my|publisher=Malaysian Palm Oil Board }}</ref>

=== Key components ===

==== Fatty acids ====
{{main|Fatty acid}}
Palm oil, like all fats, is composed of [[fatty acid]]s, [[ester]]ified with [[glycerol]]. Palm oil has an especially high concentration of saturated fat, specifically the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, [[palmitic acid]], to which it gives its name. Monounsaturated [[oleic acid]] is also a major constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of [[tocotrienol]], part of the [[vitamin E]] family.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahsan H, Ahad A, Siddiqui WA |year=2015 |title=A review of characterization of tocotrienols from plant oils and foods |journal=J Chem Biol |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=45–59 |doi=10.1007/s12154-014-0127-8 |pmc=4392014 |pmid=25870713}}</ref><ref name="oil">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6uRxCgAAQBAJ&q=Palm+Oil:+Production,+Processing,+Characterization,+and+Uses+carotenoids |title=Palm Oil: Production, Processing, Characterization, and Uses |publisher=Elsevier |year=2015 |isbn=978-0128043462 |editor1=Oi-Ming Lai |page=471 |editor2=Chin-Ping Tan |editor3=Casimir C. Akoh}}</ref>

The linoleic acid content of palm oil is about 6.4 - 15%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nang Lau |first1=Harrison Lik |last2=Puah |first2=Chiew Wei |last3=Choo |first3=Yuen May |last4=Ma |first4=Ah Ngan |last5=Chuah |first5=Cheng Hock |date=May 2005 |title=Simultaneous quantification of free fatty acids, free sterols, squalene, and acylglycerol molecular species in palm oil by high-temperature gas chromatography-flame ionization detection |url=https://aocs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1007/s11745-005-1413-1 |journal=Lipids |language=en |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=523–528 |doi=10.1007/s11745-005-1413-1 |pmid=16094863 |s2cid=4022439 |issn=0024-4201}}</ref>

The approximate concentration of esterified fatty acids in palm oil is:<ref>{{cite web |date=2014 |title=Oil, vegetable, palm per 100 g; Fats and fatty acids |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/510/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028001118/http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/510/2 |archive-date=28 October 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |website=Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, Release SR-21 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
{{bar box
|title=Fatty acid content of palm oil (present as triglyceride esters)
|titlebar=#DDD
|left1=Type of fatty acid
|right1=Fraction
|width=400px
|barwidth=100px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[myristic acid|Myristic]] saturated C14|black|1.0}}
{{bar percent|[[palmitic acid|Palmitic]] saturated C16|black|43.5}}
{{bar percent|[[stearic acid|Stearic]] saturated C18|black|4.3}}
{{bar percent|[[oleic acid|Oleic]] monounsaturated C18:1|grey|36.6}}
{{bar percent|[[linoleic acid|Linoleic]] polyunsaturated C18:2|blue|9.1}}
{{bar percent|Other/unknown|green|5.5}}
|caption=''black'': saturated<br> ''grey'': monounsaturated<br> ''blue'': polyunsaturated
}}

==== Carotenes ====
Red palm oil is rich in carotenes, such as [[alpha-carotene]], [[beta-carotene]] and [[lycopene]], which give it a characteristic dark red color.<ref name="oil" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ng |first1=M. H. |last2=Choo |first2=Y. M. |year=2016 |title=Improved Method for the Qualitative Analyses of Palm Oil Carotenes Using UPLC |journal=Journal of Chromatographic Science |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=633–638 |doi=10.1093/chromsci/bmv241 |pmc=4885407 |pmid=26941414}}</ref> However, palm oil that has been refined, bleached and deodorized from crude palm oil (called "RBD palm oil") does not contain carotenes.<ref name="nag" />

==== Palmitic acid ====
Excessive intake of [[palmitic acid]], which makes up 44% of palm oil, increases blood levels of [[low-density lipoprotein]] (LDL) and total cholesterol, and so increases risk of [[cardiovascular diseases]].<ref name="aha"/><ref name="ejcn"/><ref name=CSPI>{{Cite book |first1=Ellie |last1=Brown |first2=Michael F. |last2=Jacobson |year=2005 |title=Cruel Oil: How Palm Oil Harms Health, Rainforest & Wildlife |url=http://www.cspinet.org/new/pdf/palm_oil_final_5-27-05.pdf |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |oclc=224985333 |pages=iv, 3–5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306124811/http://www.cspinet.org/new/pdf/palm_oil_final_5-27-05.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2009  }}</ref> Other reviews, the [[World Health Organization]], and the US [[National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute]] have encouraged consumers to limit the consumption of palm oil, palmitic acid and foods high in saturated fat.<ref name="WHO Technical Report">{{Cite report |date=2003 |title=Diet Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/who_trs_916.pdf |archive-url=http://www.freezepage.com/1348239076FHWAJDADVT?url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/who_trs_916.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 September 2012 |website=World Health Organization |pages=82, 88 table 10 |access-date=13 February 2013 }}</ref><ref name=aha/><ref name=CSPI/>