Editing Majapahit (section)

==Military==
{{Campaignbox Conflicts involving Majapahit}}
The army of Majapahit was divided into 2 main types, namely ''prajurit'' (professional soldier) and [[Conscription#Medieval levies|levy]] taken up from peasants. The main weapon used was the spear.<ref name=":15" />{{Rp|84–85, 130}} Initially, cavalry only existed in limited numbers. They were mainly used for scouting and patrol, and were most likely armed with lances.<ref name=":15" />{{Rp|90, 94}} After the Mongol invasion, the use of horses became more widespread in Java, especially for war.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bankoff|first1=Greg|last2=Swart|first2=Sandra|year=2007|title=Breeds of Empire: The 'Invention' of the Horse in Southern Africa and Maritime Southeast Asia, 1500–1950|place=Copenhagen|publisher=NIAS|isbn=978-8-7769-4014-0|volume=42 (NIAS studies in Asian topics)|pages=1–20|chapter=1. Breeds of Empire and the ‘Invention’ of the Horse}}</ref>{{Rp|12–13}} [[Chariot]]s are used for transporting soldiers to the battlefield and were "parked" before the battle. Some chariots were indeed used in battle, for example, the prime minister Nambi rode a chariot and served as an archer in the Rangga Lawe rebellion (1295 CE). Gajah Mada also rode in a chariot when attacking Sundanese troops in the [[Battle of Bubat|Bubat battle]] (1357). Chariots were carved at the Penataran Temple, seemingly modeled from the real world.<ref name=":15" />{{Rp|96, 98}}<ref name=":0222">{{Cite book|last=Wales|first=H. G. Quaritch|date=1952|url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.10026|title=Ancient South-East Asian Warfare|location=London|publisher=Bernard Quaritch|language=}}</ref>{{Rp|64, 76}}<ref name=":17" />{{Rp|141, 142}} [[War elephant]]s were used mainly for transport, or as a mount for nobility and soldiers of higher rank.<ref name=":15" />{{Rp|101}}

Majapahit had 30,000 full-time professional troops, whose soldiers and commanders were paid in gold. This shows the existence of a [[standing army]], an achievement that only a handful of Southeast Asian empires could hope to achieve.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book|last=Miksic|first=John M.|year=2013|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=9789971695583|author1-link=John N. Miksic}}</ref>{{Rp|185}}<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last1=Miksic |first1=John N. |title=Ancient Southeast Asia |last2=Goh |first2=Geok Yian |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |pages=462–463}}</ref>{{Rp|467}} In addition to these professional soldiers, Majapahit was strengthened by troops from subordinate countries and regional leaders.<ref name="end" />{{Rp|277}} From the records of ''Suma Oriental'' and Malay Annals, the total number of Majapahit troops could reach 200,000 people.<ref name=":33">{{Cite book|last=Cortesão|first=Armando|url=https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-136385-182|title=The Suma oriental of Tomé Pires : an account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515; and, the book of Francisco Rodrigues, rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea, nautical rules, almanack and maps, written and drawn in the East before 1515 volume I|publisher=The Hakluyt Society|year=1944|isbn=9784000085052|location=London}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>{{Rp|175–176}}<ref>Kheng, Cheah Boon; Ismail, Abdul Rahman Haji, eds. (1998). ''[https://archive.org/details/sejarah-melayu-cheah-boon-kheng/page/n1/mode/2up?q= Sejarah Melayu The Malay Annals MS Raffles No. 18 Edisi Rumi Baru/New Romanised Edition]''. Academic Art & Printing Services Sdn. Bhd. [https://archive.org/details/sejarah-melayu-cheah-boon-kheng/page/n127/mode/2up?q=jong hlm. 118–119]: "Setelah Betara Majapahit mendengar bunyi surat bendahari raja Singapura itu, maka baginda pun segera menyuruh berlengkap tiga ratus buah jong, lain daripada itu kelulus, pilang, jongkong, tiada terbilang lagi banyaknya; maka dua keti rakyat Jawa yang pergi itu; maka segala rakyat Jawa pun pergilah. Setelah datang ke Singapura, maka berparanglah dengan orang Singapura."</ref> The Majapahit troops were multiethnic, similar to the [[Yogyakarta Sultanate]] military which had [[Bugis]] and Dhaeng ([[Makassar people|Makassar]]) troops. As noted in ''Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai'':<blockquote>So the two parties returned to their respective places. That was how the war went on every day, for about three months, the war was unrelenting, because the Javanese kingdom also received help from foreign lands.{{sfn|Nugroho|2011|p=182}}</blockquote>{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| total_width       = 220
| image1            = Bedil kuno atau meriam kuno Jawa cetbang.png
| image2            = Madrid_canons_indiens.png
| footer            = Gunpowder weapons used by Majapahit:<br />
*Bronze hand cannon-type [[cetbang]], found in the Brantas river, Jombang
*A double-barrelled cetbang on a carriage, with swivel yoke, c. 1522. The mouth of the cannon is in the shape of [[Nāga#Indonesia|Javanese Nāga]].
}}

[[Gunpowder]] technology entered Java in the [[Mongol invasion of Java]] (1293 A.D.).<ref>Lombard, Denys (1990). ''Le carrefour javanais. Essai d'histoire globale (The Javanese Crossroads: Towards a Global History) Vol. 2''. Paris: Editions de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales. p. 178.</ref><ref>Reid, Anthony (1993). ''Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680. Volume Two: Expansion and Crisis''. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.</ref>{{Rp|220}} Majapahit under ''Mahapatih'' (prime minister) [[Gajah Mada]] utilized gunpowder technology obtained from the [[Yuan dynasty]] for use in the naval fleet.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pramono|first=Djoko|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HihuOBhi1wAC|title=Budaya Bahari|publisher=Gramedia Pustaka Utama|year=2005|isbn=9789792213768|page=57}}</ref> During the following years, the Majapahit army have begun producing cannons known as [[cetbang]]. Early cetbang (also called eastern-style cetbang) resembled Chinese cannons and hand cannons. Eastern-style cetbangs were mostly made of bronze and were front-loaded cannons. It fires arrow-like projectiles, but round bullets and co-viative projectiles{{Efn|A type of scatter bullet – when shot it spews fire, splinters and bullets, and can also be arrows. The characteristic of this projectile is that the bullet does not cover the entire bore of the barrel.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Needham|first=Joseph|title=Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1986|pages=9, 220|location=Cambridge}}</ref>|name=|group=note}} can also be used. These arrows can be solid-tipped without explosives, or with explosives and incendiary materials placed behind the tip. Near the rear, there is a combustion chamber or room, which refers to the bulging part near the rear of the gun, where the gunpowder is placed. The cetbang is mounted on a fixed mount, or as a hand cannon mounted on the end of a pole. There is a tube-like section on the back of the cannon. In the hand cannon-type cetbang, this tube is used as a socket for a pole.<ref name=":102">Averoes, Muhammad (2020). Antara Cerita dan Sejarah: Meriam Cetbang Majapahit. ''Jurnal Sejarah'', 3(2), 89–100.</ref>{{Rp|94}}

Because of the close maritime relations of the Nusantara archipelago with the territory of west India, after 1460 new types of gunpowder weapons entered the archipelago through Arab intermediaries. This weapon seems to be cannon and gun of Ottoman tradition, for example the [[prangi]], which is a [[breech-loading swivel gun]].<ref name=":102" />{{Rp|94–95}} It resulted in a new type of cetbang, called "western-style cetbang". It can be mounted as a fixed or swivel gun, small-sized ones can be easily installed on small vessels. In naval combat, this gun is used as an anti-personnel weapon, not anti-ship. In this age, even to the 17th century, Nusantaran soldiers fought on a platform called ''balai'' and performed boarding actions. Loaded with scatter shots ([[grapeshot]], [[case shot]], or [[Nail (fastener)|nails]] and stones) and fired at close range, the cetbang would have been effective at this type of fighting.<ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last=Manguin|first=Pierre-Yves|date=1976|title=L'Artillerie legere nousantarienne: A propos de six canons conserves dans des collections portugaises|url=https://archive.org/details/1976-artillerie-nousantarienne/1976Artillerie_nousantarienne/|journal=Arts Asiatiques|volume=32|pages=233–268|doi=10.3406/arasi.1976.1103|s2cid=191565174 }}</ref>{{Rp|241}}<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Wade|first=Geoff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNsk7tLkMU4C|title=Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2012|isbn=978-981-4311-96-0|location=Singapore}}</ref>{{Rp|162}}

Majapahit had elite troops called ''Bhayangkara''. The main task of these troops is for protecting the king and nobilities, but they may also be deployed to the battlefield if required. The [[Hikayat Banjar]] noted the ''Bhayangkara'' equipments in the Majapahit palace:

<blockquote>''Maka kaluar dangan parhiasannya orang barbaju-rantai ampat puluh sarta padangnya barkupiah taranggos sakhlat merah, orang mambawa astenggar ampat puluh, orang mambawa parisai sarta padangnya ampat puluh, orang mambawa dadap sarta sodoknya sapuluh, orang mambawa panah sarta anaknya sapuluh, yang mambawa tumbak parampukan barsulam amas ampat puluh, yang mambawa tameng Bali bartulis air mas ampat puluh.''<br>
So came out with their ornaments men with [[chain mail]] numbered forty alongside their swords and red ''[[kopiah]]'' [skull cap], men carrying ''astengger'' [<nowiki/>[[arquebus]]] numbered forty, men carrying shield and swords numbered forty, men carrying ''dadap'' [a type of shield]{{efn | group=note |1=''Dadap'' has 2 meanings: In Indonesian language, it refers to round shield made of leather or rattan,<ref>See the meaning of ''dadap'' in Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2008). ''Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Pusat Bahasa Edisi Keempat''. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Can be accessed online at https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/dadap</ref> while in old Javanese it refers to a long, narrow parrying shield.<ref>Zoetmulder, Petrus Josephus (1982). ''Old Javanese-English dictionary''. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 345.</ref> ''Dadap'' in Java seems to refer to a long shield which is quite heavy, probably with protruding ends.<ref>Jákl, 2014: 77–78</ref>}} and ''sodok'' [broad-bladed spear-like weapon]{{efn | group=note |1=For the meaning of ''sodok'', see<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gardner |first=Gerald Brosseau |title=Keris and Other Malay Weapons |publisher=Progressive Publishing Company |year=1936 |location=Singapore |url=https://archive.org/details/KerisAndOtherMalayWeaponsfreeGift/page/n83/mode/2up?q= |page=85 }}</ref>}} numbered ten, men carrying bows and arrows numbered ten, (men) who carried ''parampukan'' spears{{efn | group=note |1=''Rampuk'' likely derived from Old Javanese ''rampog'' and ''ngrampog'', which means "to attack in great numbers". Old Javanese ''watang parampogan'' means a pike used in the ''parampogan'', that is, tiger spearing (''[[Rampokan|rampokan macan]]'').<ref>Zoetmulder, Petrus Josephus (1982). ''Old Javanese-English dictionary''. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 1499.</ref>}} embroidered with gold numbered forty, (men) who carried Balinese shields with golden water engraving numbered forty.<br>{{snd}} Hikayat Banjar, 6.3<ref>Ras, Johannes Jacobus, 1968, ''Hikayat Bandjar. A Study in Malay Historiography''. The Hague (Bibliotheca Indonesica, 1)</ref>{{Rp|Line 1209–1214}}{{sfn|Nugroho|2011|p=204-205}}</blockquote>

<gallery mode="packed" widths="110" heights="160">
File:Javanese or Sundanese jong in China Sea, from Miller Atlas of 1519.png|Cropped portion of China Sea in the [[Lopo Homem-Reineis Atlas|Miller atlas]], showing six and three-masted jong
File:Stone block fragment of a Javanese temple, probably from Candi Panataran.jpg|A relief showing scale armor, probably from Penataran temple complex
File:Vietnam matchlock of Qing period.jpg|This [[Jiaozhi]] arquebus is similar to [[Java arquebus]].
File:Seated Male Deity Holding a Cuirass (Chest Armour) last quarter of the 10th–first half of the 11th century.jpg|Deity holding a [[cuirass]], from earlier, 10–11th century, [[Nganjuk Regency|Nganjuk]], [[East Java]]
File:Archipel Asiatique Malaisie - Armes Offensives et Étendard.jpg|Various keris and pole weapons of Java
File:Plaster cast of the bodhisattwa Manjusri from candi Jago dated 1265 Saka or 1343 CE.jpg|Bodhisattva Manjusri wielding a sword, from [[Candi Jago]], 1343
</gallery>

Military forces in various parts of Southeast Asia were lightly armored. As was common in Southeast Asia, most of the Javanese forces were composed of temporarily conscripted commoners (levy) led by the warrior and noble castes. The "peasant army" was usually bare-chested wearing a ''[[Sarong|sarung]]'', armed with spear, short sword, or bow and arrows.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Oktorino |first=Nino |title=Hikayat Majapahit{{snd}}Kebangkitan dan Keruntuhan Kerajaan Terbesar di Nusantara |publisher=Elex Media Komputindo |year=2020 |isbn=978-623-00-1741-4 |location=Jakarta}}</ref>{{Rp|111–113}} The richer (higher rank) soldiers wore armor called ''[[kawaca]]''.{{Efn|''Kawaca'' has two meaning. The first one is a [[shirt]] or [[dress shirt]] (Indonesian: ''kemeja'') worn by clergy, the other means armor. See{{sfn|Nugroho|2011|p=386}}|name=|group=note}}<ref name=":15">{{cite thesis |last=Jákl |first=Jiří |date=2014 |title=Literary Representations of War and Warfare in Old Javanese Kakawin Poetry |type= |publisher=The University of Queensland |degree=PhD}}</ref>{{rp|78}} Irawan Djoko Nugroho argues that it may be shaped like a long tube and was made of cast copper.{{sfn|Nugroho|2011|pp=202, 386}} In contrast, the regular infantry (professional soldiers, not the levy) wore a scale armor called ''[[siping-siping]]''.<ref name=":15" />{{rp|75, 78–79}} There is also a kind of steel helmet called ''rukuh''.{{sfn|Nugroho|2011|p=321}}<ref name=":15" />{{rp|20, 78, 80}} Other kinds of armor used in Majapahit-era Java was ''[[Baju Rantai|waju rante]]'' (chain mail armor) and ''[[karambalangan]]'' (a layer of metal worn in front of the chest).{{sfn|Nugroho|2011|pp=202, 320}}<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Nugroho |first=Irawan Djoko |date=6 August 2018 |title=Baju Baja Emas Gajah Mada |trans-title=The Golden Armor of Gajah Mada |url=https://www.nusantarareview.com/baju-baja-emas-gajah-mada.html |access-date=14 August 2019 |website=Nusantara Review}}</ref><ref name=":5">Berg, Kindung Sundāyana (Kidung Sunda C), Soerakarta, Drukkerij "De Bliksem", 1928.</ref> In [[Kidung Sunda]] canto 2 stanza 85 it is explained that the ''mantri''s (ministers or officers) of Gajah Mada wore armor in the form of chain mail or breastplate with gold decoration and dressed in yellow attire,<ref name=":7" />{{Rp|103}} while Kidung Sundayana canto 1 stanza 95 mentioned that Gajah Mada wore golden embossed ''karambalangan'', armed with gold-layered spear, and with a shield full of diamond decoration.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" />

Majapahit also pioneered the use of firearms in the archipelago. Even though the knowledge of making gunpowder-based weapons has been known after the failed Mongol invasion of Java, and the predecessor of firearms, the [[Hand cannon|pole gun]] ([[bedil tombak]]) was recorded by Ma Huan in his [[Yingya Shenglan|''Yingya Shenlan'']] as being used by the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] for marriage ceremony in 1413,<ref>Mayers (1876). "[https://hkjo.lib.hku.hk/archive/files/cada1c05f0deef101b0493372b268cfa.pdf Chinese explorations of the Indian Ocean during the fifteenth century]". ''The China Review''. '''IV''': p. 178.</ref><ref name=":72"/>{{Rp|245}} the knowledge of making "true" firearms came much later, after the middle of the 15th century. It was brought by the [[Islam]]ic nations of West Asia, most probably the [[Arabs]]. The precise year of introduction is unknown, but it may be safely concluded to be no earlier than 1460.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Crawfurd|first=John|url=https://archive.org/details/adescriptivedic00crawgoog/page/n8/mode/2up?q=|title=A Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries|publisher=Bradbury and Evans|year=1856}}</ref>{{Rp|23}}

''[[Xingcha Shenglan]]'' (星槎勝覽) written by [[Fei Xin]] c. 1436 stated that Java (Majapahit) is equipped with armored soldiers and equipment, and it is the center of the Eastern people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jiang |first=Sun |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a05sEAAAQBAJ&dq=%E7%88%AA%E5%93%87%E9%8A%83&pg=PT38 |title=重审中国的"近代"：在思想与社会之间 (Reexamining China's "Modern Times": Between Thought and Society) |publisher=社会科学文献出版社 (Social Science Literature Publishing House) |year=2018 |isbn=9787520132626 |quote=费信《星栏胜览》称爪哇"古名阁婆,地广人稠,实甲兵器械,乃为东洋诸蓄之冲要"。[16]严从简《殊域周咨录》则谓"其国地广人稠,甲兵火统为东洋诸善之雄"。[17]明末张堂《东西洋考》亦说下港(爪哇)"甲兵为诸番之雄"。[18]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Xin |first=Fei |url=https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&chapter=436710 |title=Xingcha Shenglan (星槎勝覽, The Overall Survey of the Star Raft) |year=1436 |pages=25–26 |quote=25 爪哇國（自占城起程，順風二十晝夜可至其國）26 古名闍婆，地廣人稠，實甲兵器械，乃為東洋諸番之衝要。舊傳鬼子魔天，正於此地，與一罔象青面紅身赤髮相合。凡生子百餘，常食啖人血肉。佛書所云鬼國，其中只此地也。人被啖幾盡，忽一曰雷震石裂，中坐一人，眾稱異之，遂為國主，即領兵驅逐罔象，而不為害。後複生齒而安業，乃至今國之移文，後書一千三百七十六年。考之肇啟漢初，傳至我宣德七年。}}</ref> ''Haiguo Guangji'' (海国广记) and ''Shuyu zhouzi lu'' (殊域周咨錄) recorded that Java is vast and densely populated, and their armored soldiers and hand cannons (火銃—huǒ chòng) dominated the Eastern Seas.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hesheng |first1=Zheng |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ao8GAQAAIAAJ&q=%E7%88%AA%E5%93%87%E9%8A%83 |title=郑和下西洋资料汇编 (A Compilation of Materials on Zheng He's Voyages to the West) Volume 2, Part 1 |last2=Yijun |first2=Zheng |publisher=齐鲁书社 (Qilu Publishing House) |year=1980 |quote=《海国广记·爪哇制度》有文字,知星历。其国地广人稠,甲兵火铳为东洋诸番之雄。其俗尚气好斗,生子一岁,便以匕首佩之。刀极精巧,名日扒刺头,以金银象牙雕琢人鬼为靶。男子无老幼贫富皆佩,若有争置,即拔刀相刺,盖杀人当时拿获者抵死,逃三日而出,则不抵死矣。}}</ref>{{Rp|755}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Congjian |first=Yan |url=https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&chapter=202042 |title=殊域周咨錄 (Shuyu Zhouzilu) 第八卷真臘 (Volume 8 Chenla) |year=1583 |page=111 |quote=其國地廣人稠，甲兵火銃，為東洋諸番之雄。其俗尚氣好鬥。}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BIG9DwAAQBAJ&dq=%E7%88%AA%E5%93%87%E9%8A%83&pg=PT79 |title=南海文明圖譜：復原南海的歷史基因◆繁體中文版 (Map of South China Sea Civilization: Restoring the Historical Gene of the South China Sea. Traditional Chinese Version) |publisher=Rúshì wénhuà |year=2019 |isbn=9789578784987 |editor-last=Wenbin |editor-first=Yan |page=70 |quote=《海國廣記》記載,爪哇「甲兵火銃為東洋諸蕃之冠」。}}</ref>

Tomé Pires' 1513 account tells the army of Gusti Pati (Patih Udara), viceroy of ''Batara Vojyaya'' (probably Brawijaya or Ranawijaya), numbered 200,000 men, 2,000 of which are horsemen and 4,000 musketeers.<ref name=":3">{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite book|last=Cortesão|first=Armando|url=https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-136385-182|title=The Suma oriental of Tomé Pires : an account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515; and, the book of Francisco Rodrigues, rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea, nautical rules, almanack and maps, written and drawn in the East before 1515 volume I|publisher=The Hakluyt Society|year=1944|isbn=9784000085052|location=London}} }}</ref>{{Rp|175–176}} Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 recorded that the inhabitants of Java are great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They make many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or [[Lantaka|rentaka]]), long muskets, ''spingarde'' (arquebus), ''schioppi'' (hand cannon), [[Greek fire]], guns (cannons), and other fire-works.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Stanley|first=Henry Edward John|url=https://archive.org/details/descriptionofcoa00barbrich/page/n7/mode/2up|title=A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century by Duarte Barbosa|publisher=The Hakluyt Society|year=1866}}</ref>{{Rp|198}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Partington|first=J. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNZBSqd2cToC&q=java&pg=PA224|title=A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder|date=1999|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5954-0|language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|224}} Every place is considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|last=Jones|first=John Winter|url=https://archive.org/details/travelsofludovic00vartrich/page/254/mode/2up?q=|title=The travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India, and Ethiopia, A.D. 1503 to 1508|publisher=Hakluyt Society|year=1863}}</ref>{{Rp|254}}<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|198}}

{{multiple image
| align             = center
| direction         = vertical
| total_width       = 600
| image1            = Close-up of KITLV 87835 - Isidore van Kinsbergen - Relief on Tjandi Panataran near Blitar - Before 1900.jpg
| caption1          = Worn-out reliefs in Candi Penataran, showing an armored horse rider, armored warriors, and a chariot.
| image2            = Close-up of KITLV 87823 - Isidore van Kinsbergen - Reliefs on Tjandi Panataran near Blitar - Before 1900.jpg
| caption2          = Battle scene from the relief of the Krishnayana story.
| image3            = Close-up of KITLV 28323 - Isidore van Kinsbergen - Relief on the first gallery on the south side of Panataran near Blitar - 1867-02-1867-06.jpg
| caption3          = Troops consisting of war chariots, spearmen, and a war elephant.
| header            = Reliefs at the main temple of the Penataran temple complex, 1269 saka or 1347 CE.
}}

The first true cavalry (organized units of cooperative horsemen) in Java may have appeared during the 12th century CE.<ref>Wade, G., 2009, "The horse in Southeast Asia before 1500 CE: Some vignettes," in: B. G. Fragner, R. Kauz, R. Ptak and A. Schottenhammer (eds), ''Pferde in Asien: Geschichte, Handel und Kultur/Horses in Asia: History, Trade and Culture''. Vienna, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 161–177.</ref> The old Javanese manuscript ''kakawin Bhomāntaka'' mentioned early Javanese horse lore and horsemanship.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Teeuw, A. and S. O. Robson|title=Bhomāntaka. The Death of Bhoma|publisher=KITLV Press|year=2005|isbn=9789067182539|location=Leiden|page=436}}</ref> The manuscript may reflect the conflict (allegorically) between the newly formed Javanese cavalry and the well-established elite infantry of Javanese armies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jákl|first=Jiří|title=The Whale in Old Javanese kakawin: timiṅgila, 'elephant fish', and lĕmbwara revisited|url=https://www.academia.edu/8448722 |year=2014a |language=en |journal=Pandanus |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=103–118 [113]}}</ref> In the 14th century CE, Java became an important horse breeder and the island was even listed among horse suppliers to China.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ptak|first=Roderich|title=China's Seaborne Trade with South and Southeast Asia, 1200–1750|publisher=Ashgate|year=1999|isbn=9780860787761|page=208}}</ref> During the Majapahit period, the quantity and quality of [[Java Pony|Javanese horse]] breeds steadily grew. In 1513 CE Tomé Pires praised the highly decorated horses of Javanese nobility, complemented by gold-studded stirrups and lavishly decorated saddles that were "not found anywhere else in the world".<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|174–175}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jákl |first=Jiří |date=2016-05-15 |title=The Loincloth, Trousers, and Horse-riders in Pre-Islamic Java: Notes on the Old Javanese Term Lañciṅan |journal=Archipel |volume=91 |issue=91 |pages=185–202 [196–197]|doi=10.4000/archipel.312 |s2cid=164528855 |issn=0044-8613|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Sumbawa pony]] seems to have been derived from the Javanese domesticated horse introduced by Majapahit in the 14th century CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Jong Boers |first1=Bernice |title=Breeds of Empire: The 'Invention' of the Horse in Southern Africa and Maritime Southeast Asia, 1500–1950 |publisher=NIAS |year=2007 |isbn=978-8-7769-4014-0 |volume=42 (NIAS studies in Asian topics) |place=Copenhagen |pages=51–64 [52–53] |chapter=4. The ‘Arab’ of the Indonesian Archipelago: The Famed Horse Breeds of Sumbawa}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2/2
| total_width       = 350
| caption_align     = center
| align             = right
| image_style       = border:none;
| background color  = 
| title             = 
| image1            = 231 Krishnayana Reliefs (40388020252).jpg
| image2            = Close-up of KITLV 28301 - Isidore van Kinsbergen - Relief with part of the Ramayana epic on the south side of Panataran, Kediri - 1867-02-1867-06 warrior and horse archer.jpg
| image3            = Close-up of KITLV 28291 - Isidore van Kinsbergen - Relief on the first gallery on the north side of Panataran near Blitar - 1867-02-1867-06 horse riders.jpg
| image4            = 214 Krishnayana Reliefs (26560692388).jpg
| footer            = Soldiers and equipments depicted in the main temple of Penataran
}}

Majapahit had a naval troops that was distinguished from ground troop units, which was called ''wwang jaladhi''. Naval troops get preferential treatment in terms of facilities. Majapahit navy personnel were large, as noted Nagarakretagama canto 16 stanza 5:{{sfn|Nugroho|2011|pp=178–179}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Muljana|first=Raden Benedictus Slamet|date=1979|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vq8sAAAAMAAJ|title=Nagarakretagama dan Tafsir Sejarahnya|publisher=Bhratara Karya Aksara}}</ref>{{Rp|17, 148, 281}}{{sfn|Pigeaud|1960c|p=19}}
<blockquote>
{{lang|jv|irika tang anyabhumi sakhahemban ing Yawapuri,}} ({{lang|en|Then 'Anyabhumi' [other lands] everywhere were all united in the Javanese kingdom,}})

{{lang|jv|amateh i sajna sang nrpati khapwa satya ring ulah,}} ({{lang|en|obey every command of the king. All are faithful in attitude,}})

{{lang|jv|pituwi sing ajñalanghyana dinon wiśirnna sahana,}} ({{lang|en|even though there were treaty violators, they were attacked by expeditionary forces and were all destroyed,}})

{{lang|jv|tekap ikang watek jaladhi mantry aneka suyaśa.}} ({{lang|en|by the activity of the group of 'mantri jaladhi' [naval officers] who were numerous, glorious.}})</blockquote>

The main warship of the Majapahit navy was the [[Djong (ship)|jong]]. The jongs were large transport ships that could carry 100–2000 tons of cargo and 50–1000 people. They are about 26.36–80.51 m in [[Length on deck|LOD (deck length)]] and 28.99–88.56 m in [[Length overall|LOA (overall length)]]. A jong from 1420 nearly crossed the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>Text from Fra Mauro map, 10-A13, original Italian: "Circa hi ani del Signor 1420 una naue ouer çoncho de india discorse per una trauersa per el mar de india a la uia de le isole de hi homeni e de le done de fuora dal cauo de diab e tra le isole uerde e le oscuritade a la uia de ponente e de garbin per 40 çornade, non-trouando mai altro che aiere e aqua, e per suo arbitrio iscorse 2000 mia e declinata la fortuna i fece suo retorno in çorni 70 fina al sopradito cauo de diab. E acostandose la naue a le riue per suo bisogno, i marinari uedeno uno ouo de uno oselo nominato chrocho, el qual ouo era de la grandeça de una bota d'anfora." {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20010306061134/http://geoweb.venezia.sbn.it/geoweb/Hsl/FraMauro/FMnumerico.html]}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=March 2022|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]). Need proper academic source such as journal or book.}} A type of large nine-decked jong that was recorded in ''Kidung'' ''Panji Wijayakrama-Rangga Lawe'' (c. 1334) was called ''jong sasangawangunan'', it carried 1000 fighting men with red sails.<ref name=":17">Berg, C.C. (1930). ''[https://archive.org/details/rangga-lawe/page/90/mode/2up?q= Rangga Lawe: Middeljavaansche Historische Roman: Critisch uitgegeven]''. Batavia: Kon. Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen (''Bibliotheca Javanica'', 1).</ref>{{rp|91}} The exact number of jongs fielded by Majapahit is unknown, but the largest number of jongs deployed in an expedition was about 400 jongs when Majapahit attacked Pasai.<ref name=":2" /> The average jong used by Majapahit would be about 76.18–79.81 m [[Length overall|LOA]], carrying 600–700 men, with 1200–1400 tons [[Deadweight tonnage|deadweight]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Averoes|first=Muhammad|date=2022|title=Re-Estimating the Size of Javanese Jong Ship|journal=Historia: Jurnal Pendidik Dan Peneliti Sejarah|volume=5|issue=1|pages=57–64|doi=10.17509/historia.v5i1.39181 |s2cid=247335671 |url=https://archive.org/details/size-of-javanese-jong |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{Rp|60–62}} Before the [[Battle of Bubat]] in 1357, the [[Sunda Kingdom|Sunda]] king and the royal family arrived in Majapahit after sailing across the [[Java Sea]] in a fleet of 200 large ships and 2000 smaller vessels.<ref name=":7">Berg, C. C., 1927, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.530847/page/n11/mode/2up?q= Kidung Sunda. Inleiding, tekst, vertaling en aanteekeningen], ''BKI'' LXXXIII : 1-161.</ref>{{Rp|16–17, 76–77}} The royal family boarded a nine-decked hybrid Sino-Southeast Asian junk (Old Javanese: ''Jong sasanga wangunan'' ''ring Tatarnagari tiniru''). This hybrid junk incorporated Chinese techniques, such as using iron nails alongside wooden dowels, the construction of watertight bulkheads, and the addition of a central rudder.<ref name=":32">Lombard, Denys (2005)''. [https://archive.org/details/NJ2JA/mode/2up?q= Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya, Bagian 2: Jaringan Asia]''. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. An Indonesian translation of Lombard, Denys (1990). ''Le carrefour javanais. Essai d'histoire globale (The Javanese Crossroads: Towards a Global History) vol. 2''. Paris: Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales.</ref>{{rp|270}}<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Manguin|first=Pierre-Yves|date=September 1980|title=The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|volume=11|issue=2|pages=266–276|doi=10.1017/S002246340000446X|jstor=20070359|s2cid=162220129 }}</ref>{{rp|272–276}} Besides that, other types of vessels used by Majapahit navy are [[malangbang]], [[kelulus]], [[pelang]], [[jongkong]], [[cerucuh]], and [[tongkang]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10" /><ref>Nugroho (2011), p. 271, 399–400, quoting ''Sejarah Melayu'', 5.4: 47: ''"Maka betara Majapahitpun menitahkan hulubalangnya berlengkap perahu akan menyerang Singapura itu, seratus buah jung; lain dari itu beberapa melangbing dan kelulus, jongkong, cerucuh, tongkang, tiada terhisabkan lagi banyaknya''." (So the king of Majapahit ordered his war commander to equip vessels for attacking Singapore, a hundred jong; other than that a few melangbing and kelulus; jongkong, cerucuh, tongkang all in uncountable numbers.)</ref> In the 16th century [[Lancaran (ship)|lancaran]] and [[penjajap]] are also used.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|195}}<ref>{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite book |last=Cortesão |first=Armando |url=https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-136388-15666 |title=The Suma oriental of Tomé Pires : an account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515; and, the book of Francisco Rodrigues, rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea, nautical rules, almanack and maps, written and drawn in the East before 1515 volume II |publisher=The Hakluyt Society |year=1944 |isbn= |location=London}} }}</ref>{{Rp|282}} Modern depictions of the Majapahit navy often depict [[outrigger]] ships, in reality, these ships were from 8th-century [[Borobudur ship]] bas relief. Research by Nugroho concluded that the main vessels used by Majapahit did not use outriggers, and using [[Borobudur]] engraving as the basis for reconstructing the Majapahit ship is wrong and misleading.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nugroho |first=Irawan Djoko |date=30 July 2018 |title=Replika Kapal Majapahit, Replika Untuk Menghancurkan Sejarah Bangsa |trans-title=Majapahit Ship Replica, A Replica to Destroy the History of the Nation |url=https://www.nusantarareview.com/replika-kapal-majapahit-replika-untuk-menghancurkan-sejarah-bangsa.html |access-date=14 August 2020 |website=Nusantara Review}}</ref>{{sfn|Nugroho|2011|pp=266–267}}