Editing History of the Philippines (section)

=== Spanish rule during the 18th century ===
[[File:NewSpainFlag.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Coat of arms]] of Manila were at the corners of the [[Cross of Burgundy flag|Cross of Burgundy]] in the Spanish-Filipino battle standard.]]
Colonial income derived mainly from [[entrepôt]] trade: The [[Manila Galleon]]s sailing from the port of Manila to the port of Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico brought shipments of [[silver bullion]], and minted coin that were exchanged for return cargoes of Asian, and Pacific products. A total of 110 Manila galleons set sail in the 250 years of the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade (1565 to 1815). There was no direct trade with Spain until 1766.<ref name="uslc-4" />

[[File:Santo Tomas walled city Philippines.jpg|thumb|left|Plaza Santo Tomas in Intramuros, Manila; where the [[Santo Domingo Church]], [[Colegio de Santa Rosa - Intramuros|Colegio de Santa Rosa]] and the original [[University of Santo Tomas]] were built during the Spanish era.]]
The Philippines was never profitable as a colony during Spanish rule, and the long war against the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] from the West, in the 17th century together with the intermittent conflict with the Muslims in the South and combating Japanese [[Wokou]] piracy from the North nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury.<ref name="uslc-4" /> Furthermore, the state of near constant war caused a high death and desertion rate among the [[Mestizo]] and Indio ([[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]]) soldiers<ref name="gutenberg1"/> sent from Mexico and Peru that were stationed in the Philippines.<ref>Garcıa de los Arcos, "Grupos etnicos," ´ 65–66</ref> The high death and desertion rate also applied to the native Filipino<ref name=filipinoterm /> warriors conscripted by Spain, to fight in battles all across the archipelago. The repeated wars, lack of wages and near starvation were so intense, almost half of the soldiers sent from Latin America either died or fled to the countryside to live as vagabonds among the rebellious natives or escaped enslaved Indians (from India)<ref>The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market Page 36</ref> where they race-mixed through rape or prostitution, further blurring the racial caste system Spain tried hard to maintain.<ref>Tomás de Comyn, general manager of the Compañia Real de Filipinas, in 1810 estimated that out of a total population of 2,515,406, "the European Spaniards, and Spanish creoles and mestizos do not exceed 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages, and the distinct castes or modifications known in America under the name of mulatto, quarteroons, etc., although found in the Philippine Islands, are generally confounded in the three classes of pure Indians, Chinese mestizos and Chinese." In other words, the Mexicans who had arrived in the previous century had so intermingled with the local population that distinctions of origin had been forgotten by the 19th century. The Mexicans who came with Legázpi and aboard succeeding vessels had blended with the local residents so well that their country of origin had been erased from memory.</ref> Mixed Spanish-Filipino descent may be more common than expected as many Spaniards often had Filipino concubines and mistresses and they frequently produced children out of wedlock.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42633385 | jstor=42633385 | title=Spanish and Mestizo Women of Manila | last1=Doran | first1=Christine | journal=Philippine Studies | date=1993 | volume=41 | issue=3 | pages=269–286 | archive-date=January 24, 2023 | access-date=September 19, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124033012/https://www.jstor.org/stable/42633385 | url-status=live }}</ref> These circumstances contributed to the increasing difficulty of governing the Philippines. The Royal Fiscal of Manila wrote a letter to [[King Charles III of Spain]] in which he advises to abandon the colony, but the religious orders opposed this since they considered the Philippines a launching pad for the conversion of the Far East.<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|name=7–8}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Crossley |first=John Newsome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |title=Hernando de los Ríos Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age |date=July 28, 2013 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-4094-8242-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 168–169] |access-date=January 13, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124615/https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Philippines survived on an annual subsidy paid by the Spanish Crown and often procured from taxes and profits accrued by the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico), and the 200-year-old fortifications at Manila had not been improved much since first built by the Spanish.<ref name=tracy1995p12p55>{{Harvnb|Tracy|1995|pp=12,55}}</ref> This was one of the circumstances that made possible the brief British occupation of Manila between 1762 and 1764.

==== British occupation (1762–1764) ====
{{Main|British occupation of Manila}}

Britain declared war against Spain on January 4, 1762, and on September 24, 1762, a force of British Army regulars and [[East India Company|British East India Company]] soldiers, supported by the ships and men of the East Indies Squadron of the British [[Royal Navy]], sailed into [[Manila Bay]] from Madras, India.<ref name=tracy1995p9>{{Harvnb|Tracy|1995|p=9}}</ref> [[Battle of Manila (1762)|Manila was besieged and fell]] to the British on October 4, 1762.

Outside of Manila, the Spanish leader [[Simón de Anda y Salazar]] organized a militia of 10,000 mostly from [[Pampanga]] to resist British attempts to extend their conquest outside Manila. Anda y Salazar established his headquarters first in Bulacan, then in Bacolor.<ref name=tracy1995p58>{{Harvnb|Tracy|1995|p=58}}</ref> After a number of skirmishes and failed attempts to support Filipino uprisings, the British command admitted to the War Secretary in London that the Spanish were "in full possession of the country".<ref>Backhouse, Thomas (1765). The Secretary at War to Mr. Secretary Conway. London: British Library. pp. v. 40.</ref> The occupation of Manila ended in April 1764 as agreed to in the peace negotiations for the [[Seven Years' War]] in Europe. The Spanish then persecuted the [[Binondo]] Chinese community for its role in aiding the British.<ref name="en.radio86.com">Raitisoja, Geni [http://en.radio86.com/travel/travel-destinations/chinatown-manila-oldest-world " Chinatown Manila: Oldest in the world"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110402180844/http://en.radio86.com/travel/travel-destinations/chinatown-manila-oldest-world |date=April 2, 2011}}, ''Tradio86.com'', July 8, 2006, accessed March 19, 2011.</ref> An unknown number of [[Presidency armies|Indian soldiers]] known as [[sepoy]]s, who came with the British, deserted and settled in nearby [[Cainta, Rizal]], which explains the uniquely Indian features of generations of Cainta residents.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fish|2003|p=158}}</ref>

==== Spanish rule in the second part of the 18th century ====
In 1766 direct communication was established with Spain and trade with Europe through a national ship based on Spain. In 1774, colonial officers from Bulacan, Tondo, Laguna de Bay, and other areas surrounding Manila reported with consternation that discharged soldiers and deserters (from Mexico, Spain and Peru) during the British occupation were providing the indios military training for the weapons that had been disseminated all over the territory during the war.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mehl |first1=Eva Maria |title=Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-13679-3 |page=100 }}</ref> Expeditions from Spain were administered since 1785 by the [[Real Compañía de Filipinas]], which was granted a monopoly of trade between Spain and the islands that lasted until 1834, when the company was terminated by the Spanish crown due to poor management and financial losses.<ref>{{Cite web|first=|title=The Board of the Philippines|url=https://fundaciongoyaenaragon.es/obra/la-junta-de-filipinas/215|website=Fundacion Goya en Aragon|access-date=June 24, 2021|archive-date=July 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705221315/https://fundaciongoyaenaragon.es/obra/la-junta-de-filipinas/215|url-status=live}}</ref> About this time, Governor-General Anda complained that the Latin-American and Spanish soldiers sent to the Philippines had dispersed "all over the islands, even the most distant, looking for subsistence".<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9781316480120.007 |chapter=Unruly Mexicans in Manila: Imperial Goals and Colonial Concerns |title=Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World |year=2016 |last1=Mehl |first1=Eva Maria |pages=227–266 |isbn=978-1-316-48012-0 |quote=In Governor Anda y Salazar's opinion, an important part of the problem of vagrancy was the fact that Mexicans and Spanish disbanded after finishing their military or prison terms all over the islands, even the most distant, looking for subsistence. }}</ref>

In 1781, Governor-General [[José Basco y Vargas]] established the [[Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País|Economic Society of the Friends of the Country]].<ref name="uslc-5b">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-5}}</ref> The Philippines was administered from the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]] until the independence to Mexico in 1821 necessitated the direct rule from Spain of the Philippines from that year.

In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de
las islas Filipinas"<ref name="Estadismo1">{{Cite web |url=http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |title=ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO PRIMERO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish) |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=March 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309030040/http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Estadismo2">[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ElhFAAAAYAAJ_2 ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO SEGUNDO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)]</ref> compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten children<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ncesc.com/geographic-faq/how-big-were-families-in-the-1700s/ |title="How big were families in the 1700s?" By Keri Rutherford |access-date=March 8, 2024 |archive-date=February 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223025955/https://www.ncesc.com/geographic-faq/how-big-were-families-in-the-1700s/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and two parents, per tribute)<ref name="Newson">{{cite book |last=Newson |first=Linda A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ |title=Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines |date=April 16, 2009 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-6197-1 |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308195926/https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> and came upon the following statistics:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Data reported for the 1700s-1800s as divided by ethnicity and province<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31,54,113}}
|-
! Province 
! Native Tributes
! Spanish Mestizo Tributes
! All Tributes{{efn|Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt}}  
|-
|[[Tondo, Manila|Tondo]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|14,437-1/2
|3,528
|27,897-7
|-
|[[Cavite]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|5,724-1/2
|859
|9,132-4
|-
|[[Laguna (province)|Laguna]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|14,392-1/2
|336
|19,448-6
|-
|[[Batangas]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|15,014
|451 
|21,579-7  
|-
|[[Mindoro]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|3,165
|3-1/2
|4,000-8
|-
|[[Bulacan]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|16,586-1/2
|2,007
|25,760-5 
|-
|[[Pampanga]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|16,604-1/2
|2,641
|27,358-1 
|-
|[[Bataan]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|3,082
|619
|5,433
|-
|[[Zambales]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|1,136 
|73 
|4,389
|-
|[[Ilocos]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31}}
|44,852-1/2
|631 
|68,856
|- 
|[[Pangasinan]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31}}
|19,836 
|719-1/2
|25,366
|-
|[[Cagayan]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31}}
|9,888 
|0
|11,244-6
|-
|[[Camarines]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|54}}
|19,686-1/2 
|154-1/2 
|24,994
|-
|[[Albay]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|54}}
|12,339 
|146 
|16,093
|-       
|[[Tayabas]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|54}}
|7,396 
|12 
|9,228 
|-
|[[Cebu City|Cebu]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|28,112-1/2
|625 
|28,863  
|-        
|[[Samar]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|3,042 
|103 
|4,060  
|-
|[[Leyte]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|7,678 
|37-1/2
|10,011 
|-
|[[Caraga]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|3,497
|0
|4,977 
|-
|[[Misamis (province)|Misamis]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|1,278 
|0
|1,674 
|-
|[[Negros Island]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|5,741 
|0
|7,176  
|-
|[[Iloilo City|Iloilo]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|29,723 
|166 
|37,760  
|-
|[[Capiz]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|11,459 
|89 
|14,867  
|-
|[[Antique (province)|Antique]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|9,228 
|0
|11,620 
|-
|[[Calamianes]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|2,289  
|0
|3,161 
|-    
|'''TOTAL'''
|'''299,049'''
|'''13,201'''
|''' 424,992-16'''
|}

The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Cavite at 13%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Laguna 2.28%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Batangas 3%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Bulacan 10.79%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Bataan 16.72%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Ilocos 1.38%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31}} Pangasinan 3.49%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31}} Albay 1.16%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|54}} Cebu 2.17%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}} Samar 3.27%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
Iloilo 1%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}} Capiz 1%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}} [[Bicol region|Bicol]] 20%,<ref name="Pnas">{{cite web |author=Maximilian Larena |title=Supplementary Information for Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years (Appendix, Page 35) |publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=January 21, 2021 |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/suppl/2021/03/17/2026132118.DCSupplemental/pnas.2026132118.sapp.pdf |pages=35 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |access-date=March 23, 2021 |archive-date=July 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210701002232/https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/suppl/2021/03/17/2026132118.DCSupplemental/pnas.2026132118.sapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Zamboanga Peninsula|Zamboanga]] 40%.<ref name="Pnas" /> According to the data, in the Archdiocese of Manila which administers much of Luzon under it, about 10% of the population was Spanish-Filipino.<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Summing up all the provinces including those with no Spanish Filipinos, all in all, in the total population of the Philippines, [[Spanish Filipinos]] and mixed Spanish-Filipinos composed 5% of the population.<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31,54,113}}

The book, "Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 By Paula C. Park" citing "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)" gave a higher number of later Mexican soldier-immigrants to the Philippines, pegging the number at 35,000 immigrants in the 1700s,<ref name= "Intercolonial">"Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 Paula C. Park" Page 100</ref> in a Philippine population which was only around 1.5 Million,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=67xO2hUwzasC&dq=Friar+Manuel+Buzeta+1,502,574&pg=PR12 "The Unlucky Country The Republic of the Philippines in the 21st Century" By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (2012)(page xii)]</ref> thus forming 2.33% of the population.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://bagn.archivos.gob.mx/index.php/legajos/article/view/1243|title=Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)|last=Garcia|first=María Fernanda|journal=Bolotin Archivo General de la Nación|volume=4|issue=11|year=1998|archive-date=August 12, 2022|access-date=September 20, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812123617/https://bagn.archivos.gob.mx/index.php/legajos/article/view/1243|url-status=live}}</ref>

Meanwhile, government records show that 20% of the Philippines' total population were either pure Chinese or Mixed [[Chinese-Filipinos]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Guanqun |first=Wang |date=August 23, 2009 |title=Chinese lunar new year might become national holiday in Philippines too |work=[[Xinhua]] |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-08/23/content_11930729.htm |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826194926/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-08/23/content_11930729.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2009}}</ref><ref name="senate.gov.ph">{{Cite press release |title=Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday |date=January 21, 2013 |publisher=PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines |url=http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp |last1=Macrohon |first1=Pilar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516035425/http://legacy.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp |archive-date=May 16, 2021}}</ref>