Editing European Union (section)

==Economy==
<!--Section named and ordered by WikiProject Countries-->
{{Main|Economy of the European Union}}
[[File:Europe-GDP-PPP-per-capita-map.png|thumb|right|[[GDP]] (PPP) per capita (including non-EU countries)]]

The [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), a measure of economic activity, of EU member states was US$16.64 trillion in 2022, around 16.6 per cent of the world GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?a=1&c=001,998,&s=NGDPD,&sy=2022&ey=2022&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |access-date=24 March 2023 |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> There is a significant variation in GDP per capita between and within individual EU states. The difference between the richest and poorest regions (281 NUTS-2 regions of the [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics]]) ranged, in 2017, from 31 per cent (Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average ({{Euro|30,000}}) to 253 per cent (Luxembourg), or from {{Euro|4,600}} to {{Euro|92,600}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regional GDP per capita ranged from 31% to 626% of the EU average in 2017 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/9618249/1-26022019-AP-EN.pdf/f765d183-c3d2-4e2f-9256-cc6665909c80 |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref>

EU member states own the estimated third largest after the United States ({{US$|140}}{{nbsp}}trillion) and [[China]] ({{US$|84}}{{nbsp}}trillion) [[net wealth]] in the world, equal to around one sixth ({{US$|76}}{{nbsp}}trillion) of the {{US$|454}}{{nbsp}}trillion global wealth.<ref name="databook2023">{{Cite book |last1=Shorrocks |first1=Anthony |url=https://www.ubs.com/global/en/family-office-uhnw/reports/global-wealth-report-2023.html |title=Global Wealth Databook 2023 |last2=Davies |first2=James |last3=Lluberas |first3=Rodrigo |publisher=[[UBS]] and [[Credit Suisse]] Research Institute |year=2023 |author-link=Anthony Shorrocks |archive-date=15 August 2023 |access-date=1 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815152741/https://www.ubs.com/global/en/family-office-uhnw/reports/global-wealth-report-2023.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Of the top [[Fortune Global 500|500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue]] in 2024, 90 had their headquarters in the EU.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Global 500 2010: Countries – Australia |work=Fortune |url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2010/countries/Australia.html |access-date=8 July 2010}} Number of companies data taken from the "Pick a country" box.</ref> In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9 per cent<ref name="UNEMP">{{Cite web |date=1 March 2016 |title=Euro area unemployment rate at 10.3%, EU28 at 8.9% |url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/7197743/3-01032016-AP-EN.pdf/d91b795a-f165-4a39-a961-1ae07d6c4b13 |access-date=1 March 2016 |publisher=Europa web portal |format=PDF}}</ref> while inflation was at 2.2 per cent, and the account balance at −0.9 per cent of GDP. The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around {{Euro|25,000}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Database – Eurostat |url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/labour-market/earnings/database |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref> in 2021.

===Economic and monetary union===
{{Main|Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union}}
{{Euro accession map}}

The [[euro]] is the official currency in 20 member states of the EU. The creation of a [[European Currency Unit|European single currency]] became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969. In 1992, having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union, the member states signed the [[Maastricht Treaty]] and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed-on rules including the [[Euro convergence criteria|convergence criteria]] if they wanted to join the [[Currency union|monetary union]]. The states wanting to participate had first to join the [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]]. To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures, especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level, as agreed in the [[European Fiscal Pact]].

====Capital Markets Union and financial institutions====
{{Main|Capital Markets Union|European System of Financial Supervision|European Stability Mechanism}}

{{See also|European Banking Authority|European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority|European Securities and Markets Authority|Single Resolution Board}}<!-- Capital Markets Union -->
Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.<ref name="Europa Single Market C">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=A Single Market for Capital |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_42_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070518000627/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_42_en.htm |archive-date=18 May 2007 |access-date=27 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> Until the drive towards [[economic and monetary union]] the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.

<!-- European System of Financial Supervision -->
The [[European System of Financial Supervision]] is an institutional architecture of the EU's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities: the [[European Banking Authority]], the [[European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority]] and the [[European Securities and Markets Authority]]. To complement this framework, there is also a [[European Systemic Risk Board]] under the responsibility of the central bank. The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 September 2010 |title=Europe seals deal on financial supervision |url=http://euobserver.com/?aid=30866 |website=euobserver.com}}</ref>

====Eurozone and banking union====
{{Main|Euro|Eurozone|European banking union}}
{{See also|Eurosystem|Eurogroup}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = Euro banknotes Europa series.png
| width1            = 160
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = [[Euro banknotes]] from the Europa series (since 2013)
| image2            = Frankfurt am Main, Deutschland (Unsplash).jpg
| width2            = 108
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = [[European Central Bank]] in [[Frankfurt]], Germany
}}

In 1999, the currency union started to materialise through introducing a common accounting (virtual) currency in [[History of the euro|eleven of the member states]]. In 2002, it was turned into a fully-fledged conventible currency, when [[euro banknotes|euro notes]] and coins were issued, while the phaseout of national currencies in the eurozone (consisting by then of 12 member states) was initiated. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 20 countries.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kuchler |first=Teresa |date=25 October 2006 |title=Almunia says 'undesirable' to act on Sweden's euro refusal |publisher=EUobserver.com |url=http://euobserver.com/9/22733 |access-date=26 December 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2009 |title=ERM II |url=http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183816/http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx |archive-date=3 May 2011 |access-date=26 December 2009 |publisher=Danish Finance Ministry}}</ref>

The 20 EU member states known collectively as the [[eurozone]] have fully implemented the currency union by superseding their national currencies with the [[euro]]. The currency union represents 345{{nbsp}}million EU citizens.<ref name="Europa Single Market" /> The euro is the second largest [[reserve currency]] as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the [[United States dollar]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 December 2007 |title=Triennial Central Bank Survey 2007 |url=http://www.bis.org/publ/rpfxf07t.pdf |access-date=25 July 2009 |publisher=BIS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Aristovnik |first1=Aleksander |last2=Čeč |first2=Tanja |date=30 March 2010 |title=Compositional Analysis of Foreign Currency Reserves in the 1999–2007 Period. The Euro vs. The Dollar As Leading Reserve Currency |url=http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/14350/1/MPRA_paper_14350.pdf |access-date=27 December 2010 |publisher=Munich Personal RePEc Archive, Paper No. 14350}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Boesler |first=Matthew |date=11 November 2013 |title=There Are Only Two Real Threats To The US Dollar's Status As The International Reserve Currency |work=Business Insider |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/dollar-as-international-reserve-currency-2013-11 |access-date=8 December 2013}}</ref>

The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the ECB.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ECB, ESCB and the Eurosystem |url=http://www.ecb.int/ecb/orga/escb/html/index.en.html |access-date=15 September 2007 |publisher=European Central Bank}}</ref> The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thus controls [[monetary policy]] in that area with an agenda to maintain [[price stability]]. It is at the centre of the [[Eurosystem]], which comprehends all the eurozone national central banks.<ref name="ECB org">{{Cite web |title=ECB, ESCB and the Eurosystem |url=http://www.ecb.int/ecb/orga/escb/html/index.en.html |access-date=7 July 2011 |publisher=European Central Bank}}</ref> The ECB is also the central institution of the [[Banking Union]] established within the eurozone, as the hub of [[European Banking Supervision]]. There is also a [[Single Resolution Mechanism]] in case of a bank default.

===Trade===
As a political entity, the European Union is represented in the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO). Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a [[single market]], and a [[European Union Customs Union|customs union]] between its member states.

====Single market====
{{Main|European single market}}
{{Further|Digital Single Market}}
[[File:EU Single Market.svg|thumb|right|upright=1|[[European Single Market]]
 {{Leftlegend|#003399|[[Member state of the European Union|EU member states]]}}
 {{Leftlegend|#a050ffff|Non-EU states which participate}}
]]

<!-- European Single Market-->
The single market involves [[European Single Market|the free circulation of goods, capital, people, and services within the EU]],<ref name="Europa Single Market">{{Cite web |title=The Single Market |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001122551/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm |archive-date=1 October 2007 |access-date=27 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for 60 per cent to 70 per cent of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the [[Services in the Internal Market Directive 2006]] which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services.<ref name="Europa Single Market S">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=A Single Market for Services |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_19_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610133514/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_19_en.htm |archive-date=10 June 2007 |access-date=27 June 2007 |publisher=Europa}}</ref> According to the treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.

====Customs union====
{{Main|European Union Customs Union}}
[[File:EU Customs Union.svg|thumb|upright=1|[[European Customs Union]]
 {{Leftlegend|#003399|[[Member state of the European Union|EU member states]]}}
 {{Leftlegend|#a050ff|Non-EU states which participate}}
]]

<!-- European Customs Union -->
The customs union involves the application of a [[common external tariff]] on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or [[import quota]]s, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Switzerland]] participate in the single market but not in the customs union.<ref name="EEA">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=The European Economic Area (EEA) |url=http://eeas.europa.eu/eea/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202041812/http://eeas.europa.eu/eea/ |archive-date=2 December 2010 |access-date=10 February 2010 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.<ref name="Europa Single Market G">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=A Single Market for goods |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_18_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621214532/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_18_en.htm |archive-date=21 June 2007 |access-date=27 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref>

<!-- European Union Association Agreement -->
The [[European Union Association Agreement]] does something similar for a much larger range of countries, partly as a so-called soft approach ('a carrot instead of a stick') to influence the politics in those countries.
The European Union represents all its members at the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), and acts on behalf of member states in any disputes. When the EU negotiates trade related agreement outside the WTO framework, the subsequent agreement must be approved by each individual EU member state government.<ref name="Se-jeong" />

==== Competition and consumer protection ====
{{Main|European Union competition law|European consumer law}}
{{See also|European Union Intellectual Property Office}}

The EU operates a [[European Union competition law|competition policy]] intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.<ref group="lower-alpha">Article 3(1)(g) of the Treaty of Rome</ref> In 2001 the commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States ([[General Electric]] and [[Honeywell]]) which had already been approved by their national authority.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 July 2001 |title=The Commission prohibits GE's acquisition of Honeywell |url=http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/01/939 |access-date=12 November 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> Another high-profile case, [[European Union Microsoft competition case|against Microsoft]], resulted in the commission fining [[Microsoft]] over {{Euro|777}}&nbsp;million following nine years of legal action.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gow |first=David |date=22 October 2007 |title=Microsoft caves in to European Commission |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2007/oct/22/microsoft.microsoft |access-date=12 November 2007 |work=The Guardian |location=London}}</ref>

====External trade====
{{Main|Common Commercial Policy (EU)}}
[[File:EU FTAs.svg|thumb|EU free trade agreements
{{legend|lightblue|European Union}}
{{legend|green|Agreement in force}}
{{legend|lightgreen|Agreement (in part) provisionally applied}}
{{legend|orange|Agreement signed, but not applied}}
{{legend|#ff8080|Agreement initialed, not signed}}
{{legend|yellow|Agreement being negotiated}}
{{legend|#b3b3b3|Agreement negotiations on hold/suspended}}]]

The European Union has concluded [[European Union free trade agreements|free trade agreements]] (FTAs)<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 April 2016 |title=Free trade agreements |url=http://trade.ec.europa.eu/tradehelp/free-trade-agreements |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622093930/https://trade.ec.europa.eu/tradehelp/free-trade-agreements |archive-date=22 June 2019 |access-date=22 May 2018 |publisher=European Commission}}</ref> and other agreements with a trade component with many countries worldwide and is negotiating with many others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agreements |url=http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/agreements/ |access-date=17 March 2016 |publisher=European Commission}}</ref> The European Union's services trade surplus rose from $16 billion in 2000 to more than $250 billion in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The European Union and its trade partners {{!}} Fact Sheets on the European Union {{!}} European Parliament |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/160/the-european-union-and-its-trade-partners |access-date=7 June 2021 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> In 2020, in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic, China became the EU's largest trading partner, displacing the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wong |first=Audrye |date=May 2021 |title=How Not to Win Allies and Influence Geopolitics China's Self-Defeating Economic Statecraft |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=100 |issue=3}}</ref> The European Union is the largest exporter in the world<ref>{{Cite web |title=Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2078rank.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004073036/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook//rankorder/2078rank.html |archive-date=4 October 2008 |access-date=26 April 2011 |publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> and in 2008 was the largest importer of goods and services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World trade report 2009 |url=http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/anrep_e/world_trade_report09_e.pdf |publisher=WTO information website}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=EU position in world trade |url=http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/eu-position-in-world-trade/ |access-date=24 May 2015 |publisher=European Commission}}</ref> Internal trade between the member states is aided by the removal of barriers to trade such as [[tariff]]s and [[border control]]s. In the [[eurozone]], trade is helped by not having any currency differences to deal with amongst most members.<ref name="Se-jeong">{{Cite news |last=Se-jeong |first=Kim |date=19 July 2009 |title=EU-Korea FTA Will Be a Long Process: Greek Ambassador |publisher=[[The Korea Times]] |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/special/2009/07/139_48696.html |access-date=15 August 2009}}</ref> Externally, the EU's free-trade agreement with [[Japan]] is perhaps its most notable one. The [[Japan–European Union relations#Political relations and agreements|EU-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement]] was officially signed on 17 July 2018, becoming the world's largest bilateral free trade deal when it went into effect on 1 February 2019, creating an open trade zone covering nearly one-third of global GDP.<ref>{{cite web|title=European Union and Japan to sign historic trade deal|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/2018/0717/979174-eu_japan/|publisher=RTE|date=17 July 2018|access-date=17 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Japan-EU trade deal 'light in darkness' amid Trump's protectionism|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/17/japan-eu-trade-deal-light-in-darkness-amid-trumps-protectionism|work=The Guardian|date=17 July 2018|access-date=17 July 2018}}</ref>

===Energy===
{{Main|Energy policy of the European Union}}
{{See also|European Union Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators}}
{{Pie chart
| caption = Total energy supply (2019)<ref>[https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-key-figures/w/ks-ex-23-001 Eurostat, ''Key figures on the EU in the world'', 2023 edition, p. 72]</ref>
| label1 = Oil
| value1 = 31.7
| color1 = black
| label2 = Natural gas
| value2 = 24.7
| color2 = #8B8888
| label3 = Coal
| value3 = 10.9
| color3 = #8B3333
| label4 = Nuclear
| value4 = 13.2
| color4 = #ffeeaa
| label5 = Biofuels, waste, electricity, heat
| value5 = 19.4
| color5 = #668B22
}}

The total energy supply of the EU was 59 billion [[Joule (unit)|GJ]] in 2019, about 10.2 per cent of the world total. Approximately three fifths of the energy available in the EU came from imports (mostly of fossil fuels). [[Renewable energy]] contributed 18.1 per cent of the EU's total energy supply in 2019, and 11.1 per cent of the final energy consumption.<ref>Eurostat, ''Key figures on the EU in the world'', 2023 edition, p. 70 and 73 [https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-key-figures/w/ks-ex-23-001]</ref>

The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original [[European Coal and Steel Community]]. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.<ref name="Energy Q&A">{{Cite news |date=9 March 2007 |title=Q&A: EU energy plans |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4783996.stm |access-date=13 July 2007}}</ref>

[[File:Energy Community Map.svg|thumb|left|[[Energy Community]]]]

The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the [[European Single Market|internal market]], encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia<ref name="oies">{{Cite web |last=Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff |date=November 2008 |title=Kazakhstan's Gas: Export Markets and Export Routes |url=http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/NG25-KazakhstansgasExportMarketsandExportRoutes-ShamilYenikeyeff-2008.pdf |access-date=17 November 2011 |publisher=[[Oxford Institute for Energy Studies]]}}</ref> and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing [[renewable energy commercialisation]]; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.<ref name="Energy Q&A" />

In 2007, EU countries as a whole imported 82 per cent of their oil, 57 per cent of their natural gas<ref name="low carb prop">{{Cite web |date=10 January 2007 |title='Low-carbon economy' proposed for Europe |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna16560106 |access-date=24 January 2007 |publisher=NBC News}}</ref> and 97.48 per cent of their uranium<ref name="Euratom2007">{{Cite book |title=Euratom Supply Agency – Annual Report 2007 |publisher=Office for Official Publications of the European Communities |year=2008 |isbn=978-92-79-09437-8 |location=Luxembourg |page=22 |chapter=EU supply and demand for nuclear fuels |quote=European uranium mining supplied just below 3% of the total EU needs, coming from the Czech Republic and Romania (a total of 526 tU). |access-date=1 March 2009 |chapter-url=http://ec.europa.eu/euratom/ar/last.pdf}} <br />
Nuclear energy and renewable energy are treated differently from oil, gas, and coal in this respect.</ref> demands. The three largest suppliers of natural gas to the European Union are Russia, Norway and [[Algeria]], that amounted for about three quarters of the imports in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Abnett |first1=Kate |last2=Nasralla |first2=Shadia |date=17 July 2020 |title=EU's greenhouse gas strategy fails to plug methane hole |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-energy-methane-insight/eus-greenhouse-gas-strategy-fails-to-plug-methane-hole-idINKCN24I0IV |publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> There is a strong [[Russia in the European energy sector|dependence on Russian energy]] that the EU has been attempting to reduce.<ref name="Energy Russia">{{Cite web |last=European Parliament |title=Ukraine-Russia gas dispute – call for stronger EU energy policy |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20060112STO04233&secondRef=0 |access-date=27 February 2008 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> However, in May 2022, it was reported that the European Union is preparing another sanction against Russia over its invasion of Ukraine. It is expected to target Russian oil, Russian and Belarusian banks, as well as individuals and companies. According to an article by Reuters, two diplomats stated that the European Union may impose a ban on imports of Russian oil by the end of 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 May 2022 |title=EU leans towards Russian oil ban by year-end, diplomats say |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/eu-leans-towards-russian-oil-ban-by-year-end-diplomats-say-2022-05-01/ |access-date=1 May 2022}}</ref> In May 2022, the [[European Commission]] published the 'RePowerEU' initiative, a €300 billion plan outlining the path towards the end of EU dependence on Russian fossil fuels by 2030 and the acceleration on the clean energy transition.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2022 |title=EU unveils €300 billion plan to reduce its energy dependency on Russia |url=https://www.dw.com/en/eu-unveils-300-billion-plan-to-reduce-its-energy-dependency-on-russia/a-61838801 |website=[[dw.com]]}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in the European Union}}

{{Further|Trans-European Transport Network}}
{{See also|European Union Aviation Safety Agency|European Maritime Safety Agency|European Union Agency for Railways}}

[[File:Trans-European Transport Network (2024).png|thumb|right|upright=1|Map of the [[Trans-European Transport Network]]]]

<!-- Road -->
The European Union manages cross-border road, railway, airport and water infrastructure through the [[Trans-European Transport Network]] (TEN-T), created in 1990,<ref name="Axes page 7">{{Cite web |title=Mobility and transport |url=https://transport.ec.europa.eu/index_en |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=transport.ec.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> and the [[Trans-European Combined Transport network]]. TEN-T comprises two network layers: the Core Network, which is to be completed by 2030; and the Comprehensive Network, which is to be completed by 2050. The network is currently made up of 9 core corridors: the [[Baltic–Adriatic Corridor]], the [[North Sea–Baltic Corridor]], the [[Mediterranean Corridor]], the [[Orient/East–Med Corridor]], the [[Scandinavian–Mediterranean Corridor]], the [[Rhine–Alpine Corridor]], the Atlantic Corridor, the [[North Sea–Mediterranean Corridor]], and the [[Rhine–Danube Corridor]]. Road transportation was organised under the TEN-T by the [[Trans-European road network]]. [[Bundesautobahn 7]] is the longest national [[motorway]] in the EU at 963&nbsp;km (598&nbsp;mi).

<!-- Maritime -->
[[File:Port of Rotterdam Landsat 8 Photo 8 May 2016.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Satellite photo of the [[Port of Rotterdam]]]]

Maritime transportation is organised under the TEN-T by the [[Trans-European Inland Waterway network]], and the [[Trans-European Seaport network]]. European [[seaport]]s are categorized as international, community, or regional. The [[Port of Rotterdam]] is the busiest in the EU, and the world's largest seaport outside of [[East Asia]], located in and near the city of [[Rotterdam]], in the province of [[South Holland]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Data services – Eurostat |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/main/eurostat/web/main/help/faq/data-services |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=File:Top 20 ports handling containers, 2008-2018 (thousand TEUs).png |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=File:Top_20_ports_handling_containers,_2008-2018_(thousand_TEUs).png |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref> The [[European Maritime Safety Agency]] (EMSA), founded in 2002 in [[Lisbon]], Portugal, is charged with reducing the risk of [[Shipwreck|maritime accidents]], [[marine pollution]] from ships and the [[Search and rescue|loss of human lives at sea]] by helping to enforce the pertinent EU legislation.

<!-- Air -->
Air transportation is organised under the TEN-T by the [[Trans-European Airport network]]. European [[airport]]s are categorized as international, community, or regional. The [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]] is the busiest in the EU, located in and near the city of [[Paris]], in France.<ref name=":FR2021">{{Cite web |title=Résultats d'activité desaéroports français 2021 |url=https://www.aeroport.fr/uploads/documents/resultats-activite-aeroports-francais-2021.pdf.pdf |language=fr}}</ref> The [[European Common Aviation Area]] (ECAA) is a [[single market]] in [[aviation]]. ECAA agreements were signed on 5 May 2006 in [[Salzburg]], Austria between the EU and some third countries. The ECAA liberalises the air transport industry by allowing any company from any ECAA member state to fly between any ECAA member states airports, thereby allowing a "foreign" airline to provide domestic flights. The [[Single European Sky]] (SES) is an initiative that seeks to reform the European [[air traffic management]] system through a series of actions carried out in four different levels (institutional, operational, technological and control and supervision) with the aim of satisfying the needs of the European airspace in terms of capacity, safety, efficiency and environmental impact. Civil [[aviation safety]] is under the responsibility of the [[European Union Aviation Safety Agency]] (EASA). It carries out [[Type certificate|certification]], regulation and standardisation and also performs investigation and monitoring. The idea of a European-level aviation safety authority goes back to 1996, but the agency was only legally established in 2002, and began operating in 2003.

<!-- Rail -->
Rail transportation is organised under the TEN-T by the [[Trans-European Rail network]], made up of the [[Trans-European high-speed rail network|high-speed rail network]] and the [[Trans-European conventional rail network|conventional rail network]]. The [[Gare du Nord]] railway station is the busiest in the EU, located in and near the city of [[Paris]], in France.<ref name="SNCF">{{Cite web |title=SNCF Open Data — Fréquentation en gares |url=https://ressources.data.sncf.com/explore/dataset/frequentation-gares/table/?disjunctive.nom_gare&disjunctive.code_postal&sort=total_voyageurs_2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921142142/https://ressources.data.sncf.com/explore/dataset/frequentation-gares/table/?disjunctive.nom_gare&disjunctive.code_postal&sort=total_voyageurs_2019 |archive-date=21 September 2021 |access-date=21 September 2021 |publisher=[[SNCF]] |via=ressources.data.sncf.com – SNCF OPEN DATA |location=Paris, France}}</ref><ref name="RATP">{{Cite web |title=Trafic annuel entrant par station du réseau ferré 2019 |url=https://data.ratp.fr/explore/dataset/trafic-annuel-entrant-par-station-du-reseau-ferre-2019/table/?sort=trafic |access-date=21 September 2021 |publisher=[[RATP Group|RATP]] |via=Open Data RATP |location=Paris, France}}</ref> [[Rail transport in Europe]] is being synchronised with the [[European Rail Traffic Management System]] (ERTMS) with the goal of greatly enhancing safety, increase efficiency of train transports and enhance cross-border interoperability. This is done by replacing former national [[Railway signal|signalling]] equipment and operational procedures with a single new Europe-wide standard for train control and command systems. This system is conducted by the [[European Union Agency for Railways]] (ERA).

{{Gallery
| title = Transport documents used in the European Union
| align = center
| File:Croatian driving licence.jpg
 | [[European driving licence]]<br>{{Small|(Croatian version pictured)}}
<!--| File:Kentekencard voorzijde 1 december 2013.jpg
 | [[European vehicle registration certificate]]<br>{{Small|(Dutch version pictured)}}-->
| File:Slovak car registration plate 2023.jpg
 | [[European vehicle registration plate]]<br>{{Small|(Slovak version pictured)}}
| File:Scheckkartenzulassungsschein Vorderseite.jpg
 | European [[vehicle registration certificate]]<br>{{Small|(Austrian version pictured)}}
| File:2016 Karta parkingowa.jpg
 | European [[disabled parking permit]]<br>{{Small|(Polish version pictured)}}
<!--| File:Licencja maszynisty.jpg
 | European [[train driver]]'s licence<br>{{Small|(Polish version)}}
| File:Kompetenznachweis zum Führen von Drohnen in der EU (Kategorien A1 und A3) — LBA 2021.jpg
 | European [[Pilot licensing and certification|drone licence]]<br>{{Small|(German version)}}-->
}}

==== Schengen Area ====
{{Main|Schengen Area}}

[[File:Map of the Schengen Area.svg|thumb|upright=1|Map of the Schengen Area
 {{Leftlegend|#003399|Schengen Area}}
 {{Leftlegend|#46a43b|Countries ''de facto'' participating}}
 {{Leftlegend|#ffd617|Members of the EU committed by treaty to join the Schengen Area in the future}}
]]

The Schengen Area is an area comprising 29 European countries that have officially abolished all passport and all other types of [[border control]] at their mutual borders. Being an element within the wider [[area of freedom, security and justice]] policy of the EU, it mostly functions as a single jurisdiction under [[Visa policies in the European Union|a common visa policy]] for international travel purposes. The area is named after the 1985 [[Schengen Agreement]] and the 1990 [[Schengen Convention]], both signed in [[Schengen, Luxembourg]]. Of the 27 EU member states, 25 participate in the Schengen Area. Of the EU members that are not part of the Schengen Area, one—[[Cyprus and the European Union|Cyprus]]—is legally obligated to join the area in the future; [[Ireland and the European Union|Ireland]] maintains an [[Opt-outs in the European Union|opt-out]], and instead operates [[Visa policy of Ireland|its own visa policy]]. The four [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA) member states, [[Iceland–European Union relations|Iceland]], [[Liechtenstein-European Union relations|Liechtenstein]], [[Norway-European Union relations|Norway]], and [[Switzerland-European Union relations|Switzerland]], are not members of the EU, but have signed agreements in association with the Schengen Agreement. Also, three [[European microstates]] – [[Monaco]], [[San Marino]] and the [[Vatican City]] – maintain open borders for passenger traffic with their neighbours, and are therefore considered ''de facto'' members of the Schengen Area due to the practical impossibility of travelling to or from them without transiting through at least one Schengen member country.

===Telecommunications and space===
{{Main
 | Telecommunications in the European Union
 | European Union Space Programme
}}
{{Further|European Union roaming regulations}}
{{See also
 | Agency for Support for BEREC
 | European Union Agency for the Space Programme
 | European Space Agency
}}

Mobile communication [[European Union roaming regulations|roaming charges]] are abolished throughout the EU, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.

[[File:Galileo Control Centre at the DLR Oberpfaffenhofen site.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Galileo (satellite navigation)|Galileo]] control centre in [[Oberpfaffenhofen]], Germany]]

<!-- European Union Agency for the Space Programme -->
The [[European Union Agency for the Space Programme]] (EUSPA), headquartered in [[Prague]], Czech Republic, was established in 2021 to manage the [[European Union Space Programme]] in order to implement the pre-existing ''European Space Policy'', established on 22 May 2007 between the EU and the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA), known collectively as the ''European Space Council''. This was the first common political framework for space activities established by the EU. Each member state has pursued to some extent their own national space policy, though often co-ordinating through the ESA. [[Günter Verheugen]], the [[European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry]], has stated that even though the EU is "a world leader in the technology, it is being put on the defensive by the United States and Russia and that it only has about a 10-year technological advantage on China and India, which are racing to catch up."

<!-- Infrastructure -->
[[Galileo (satellite navigation)|Galileo]] is a [[Satellite navigation|global navigation satellite system]] (GNSS) that went live in 2016, created by the EU through the ESA, operated by the EUSPA, with two ground operations centres in [[Fucine Lake|Fucino]], Italy, and [[Oberpfaffenhofen]], Germany. The €10 billion project is named after the Italian astronomer [[Galileo Galilei]]. One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an independent high-precision positioning system so European political and military authorities do not have to rely on the US [[Global Positioning System|GPS]], or the Russian [[GLONASS]] systems, which could be disabled or degraded by their operators at any time. The [[European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service]] (EGNOS) is a [[satellite-based augmentation system]] (SBAS) developed by the ESA and [[EUROCONTROL]]. Currently, it supplements the GPS by reporting on the reliability and accuracy of their positioning data and sending out corrections. The system will supplement Galileo in a future version. The [[Copernicus Programme]] is the EU's Earth observation programme coordinated and managed by EUSPA in partnership with ESA. It aims at achieving a global, continuous, autonomous, high quality, wide range Earth observation capacity, providing accurate, timely and easily accessible information to, among other things, improve the management of the environment, understand and [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate the effects of climate change]], and ensure civil security.

===Agriculture and fisheries===
{{Main
 | Common Agricultural Policy
 | Common Fisheries Policy
}}
{{See also
 | European Fisheries Control Agency
 | European Food Safety Authority
}}

[[File:European Union Exclusive Economic Zones.PNG|thumb|upright=1|The EU's [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ). At 25&nbsp;million square kilometres, it is the largest in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Summaries of EU legislation |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/browse/summaries.html |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=EUR-Lex |language=en}}</ref>]]

<!-- Common Agricultural Policy -->
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the [[agricultural policy]] of the European Union. It implements a system of [[agricultural subsidies]] and other programmes. It was introduced in 1962 and has since then undergone several changes to reduce the EEC budget cost (from 73% in 1985 to 37% in 2017) and consider rural development in its aims. It has, however, been criticised on the grounds of its cost and its environmental and humanitarian effects.

<!-- Common Fisheries Policy -->
Likewise, the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is the [[fisheries]] policy of the European Union. It sets quotas for which member states are allowed to catch each type of fish, as well as encouraging the [[fishing industry]] by various market interventions and [[fishing subsidies]]. It was introduced in 2009 with the Treaty of Lisbon, which formally enshrined fisheries conservation policy as one of the handful of "exclusive competences" reserved for the European Union.

===Labour===
{{See also
| European Agency for Safety and Health at Work
| European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training
| European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions
| European Labour Authority
| European Training Foundation
| EURES
}}

The free movement of persons means that [[Citizenship of the European Union|EU citizens]] can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.<ref name="Europa Single Market P">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=Living and working in the Single Market |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_15_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613212310/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_15_en.htm |archive-date=13 June 2007 |access-date=27 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> The EU seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 6.7 per cent in September 2018.<ref name="unemployment">{{Cite web |title=Eurostat – Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table |url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&language=en&pcode=teilm020&tableSelection=1&plugin=1 |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref> The euro area unemployment rate was 8.1 per cent.<ref name="unemployment" /> Among the member states, the lowest unemployment rates were recorded in the Czech Republic (2.3 per cent), Germany and Poland (both 3.4 per cent), and the highest in Spain (10.61 per cent in 2024)<ref>{{cite web|title=Economically Active Population Survey. Fourth Quarter 2024.|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176918&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735976595|website=INE Instituto Nacional de Estadística |access-date=31 January 2025}}</ref> and Greece (9.6 per cent in November 2024).<ref>[https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/web/products-euro-indicators/w/3-07012025-bp]</ref>

The European Union has long sought to mitigate the effects of free markets by protecting workers' rights and preventing [[Social dumping|social]] and [[environmental dumping]].{{citation needed|date=October 2022}} To this end it has adopted laws establishing minimum employment and environmental standards. These included the [[Working Time Directive]] and the [[Environmental Impact Assessment Directive 2011|Environmental Impact Assessment Directive]]. The European Directive about Minimum Wage, which looks to lift minimum wages and strengthen collective bargaining was approved by the European Parliament in September 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2022 |title=EU Parliament approves Minimum Wage Directive |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/economy-jobs/news/eu-parliament-approves-minimum-wage-directive/}}</ref>

===Regional development===
{{Main|Regional policy of the European Union}}
{{See also|European Committee of the Regions|European Investment Bank}}

[[File:European regional policy 2021.svg|thumb|right|upright=1|Classification of regions from 2021 to 2027
 {{Leftlegend|#FF0000|Less developed regions}}
 {{Leftlegend|#FFFF00|Transition regions}}
 {{Leftlegend|#0000FF|More developed regions}}
]]

The five [[European Structural and Investment Funds]] are supporting the development of the EU regions, primarily the underdeveloped ones, located mostly in the states of [[Central Europe|central]] and southern Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Select Committee on European Union |year=2008 |title=Chapter 2: The European Union Structural and Cohesion Funds |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldselect/ldeucom/141/14105.htm |access-date=28 February 2012 |website=Nineteenth Report}}</ref><ref name="Business2000 Funds">{{Cite web |title=EU Structural and Cohesion funds |url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/structural_cohesion_fund_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529083348/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/structural_cohesion_fund_en.htm |archive-date=29 May 2010 |access-date=1 November 2010}}</ref> Another fund (the [[Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance]]) provides support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard. Demographic transition to a society of ageing population, low fertility-rates and depopulation of non-metropolitan regions is tackled within this policies.