Editing Cervical cancer (section)

==Society and culture==
===Australia===
In Australia, Aboriginal women are more than five times more likely to die from cervical cancer than non-Aboriginal women, suggesting that Aboriginal women are less likely to have regular Pap tests.<ref name=CSP>{{cite web | author = Cancer Institute NSW | publisher = NSW Government | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130411015842/http://www.csp.nsw.gov.au/aboriginal | archive-date = 11 April 2013 | url = http://www.csp.nsw.gov.au/aboriginal | title = Information about cervical screening for Aboriginal women | year = 2013 }}</ref> There are several factors that may limit indigenous women from engaging in regular cervical screening practices, including sensitivity in discussing the topic in Aboriginal communities, embarrassment, anxiety and fear about the procedure.<ref name=SciNetwork2011>{{cite web | vauthors = Romano MA | publisher = Science Network Western Australia | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130514223512/http://www.sciencewa.net.au/topics/health-a-medicine/item/995-aboriginal-cervical-cancer-rates-parallel-health-inequity.html | archive-date = 14 May 2013 | url = http://www.sciencewa.net.au/topics/health-a-medicine/item/995-aboriginal-cervical-cancer-rates-parallel-health-inequity.html | title = Aboriginal cervical cancer rates parallel health inequity | date = 17 October 2011 }}</ref> Difficulty in accessing screening services (for example, transport difficulties) and a lack of female GPs, trained Pap test providers and trained female Aboriginal Health Workers are also issues.<ref name=SciNetwork2011/>

The [[Australian Cervical Cancer Foundation]] (ACCF), founded in 2008, promotes 'women's health by eliminating cervical cancer and enabling treatment for women with cervical cancer and related health issues, in Australia and in developing countries.'<ref name=ACCFVision>{{cite web | author = Australian Cervical Cancer Foundation | publisher = Australian Cervical Cancer Foundation | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130512195946/http://accf.org.au/about/vision.html | archive-date = 12 May 2013 | url = http://accf.org.au/about/vision.html | title = Vision and Mission }}</ref> [[Ian Frazer]], one of the developers of the Gardasil cervical cancer vaccine, is the scientific advisor to ACCF.<ref name=ACCFPeople>{{cite web | author = Australian Cervical Cancer Foundation | publisher = Australian Cervical Cancer Foundation | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130512195956/http://accf.org.au/about/ourboard.html | archive-date = 12 May 2013 | url = http://accf.org.au/about/ourboard.html | title = Our People }}</ref> [[Janette Howard]], the wife of the then-Prime Minister of Australia, [[John Howard]], was diagnosed with cervical cancer in 1996, and first spoke publicly about the disease in 2006.<ref name=JanetteHoward>{{cite web | vauthors = Bradford G | publisher = [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121103140141/http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2006/s1766104.htm | archive-date = 3 November 2012 | url = http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2006/s1766104.htm | date=16 October 2006 | title = Janette Howard speaks on her battle with cervical cancer }}</ref>

===United States===
[[File:CDC health disparities for cervical cancer PSA.jpg|thumb|A [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] public service announcement about cervical cancer health disparities in the United States.]]

A 2007 survey of American women found 40% had heard of HPV infection and less than half of those knew it causes cervical cancer.<ref name=pmid17267388>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tiro JA, Meissner HI, Kobrin S, Chollette V | title = What do women in the U.S. know about human papillomavirus and cervical cancer? | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 288–294 | date = February 2007 | pmid = 17267388 | doi = 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-06-0756 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Over a longitudinal study from 1975 to 2000, it was found that people of lower socioeconomic census brackets had higher rates of late-stage cancer diagnosis and higher morbidity rates. After controlling for stage, there still existed differences in survival rates.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Singh GK, Miller BA, Hankey BF, Edwards BK | title = Persistent area socioeconomic disparities in U.S. incidence of cervical cancer, mortality, stage, and survival, 1975–2000 | journal = Cancer | volume = 101 | issue = 5 | pages = 1051–1057 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15329915 | doi = 10.1002/cncr.20467 | s2cid = 26033629 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Women in the US experience [[Social stigma|stigma]] around HPV infection, vaccination, and cervical cancer. This is predominantly driven by fear of social judgment and rejection, self-blame, and shame, with notable negative influences from gender and social norms, as both [[human papillomavirus]] infection and cervical cancer were stigmatized due to the perception that they arise from reckless behavior such as having multiple sexual partners or neglecting screening.<ref name="pmid34662598">{{cite journal |vauthors=Peterson CE, Silva A, Goben AH, Ongtengco NP, Hu EZ, Khanna D, Nussbaum ER, Jasenof IG, Kim SJ, Dykens JA |date=December 2021 |title=Stigma and cervical cancer prevention: A scoping review of the U.S. literature |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/16926994 |journal=Prev Med |volume=153 |issue= |page=106849 |doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106849 |pmid=34662598 |s2cid=239027566}}</ref>

=== LGBTQ populations ===
Transgender men and gender-diverse people who have a cervix (even if partially intact) or have a prior history of cervical cancer or precancerous conditions, and are age 21 or older who have ever had sex with anyone need to get screened for cervical cancer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=As a trans man, do I need to get screened for cervical cancer? |url=https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/find-cancer-early/screening-in-lgbtq-communities/as-a-trans-man-do-i-need-to-get-screened-for-cervical-cancer |access-date=21 January 2023 |website=Canadian Cancer Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-06-27 |title=Should trans men have cervical screening tests? |url=https://www.nhs.uk/common-health-questions/sexual-health/should-trans-men-have-cervical-screening-tests/ |access-date=2023-01-21 |website=nhs.uk |language=en}}</ref> Transmasculine people are just as likely as cisgender women to have cervical cancer, but are less likely to undergo cervical screening, because of dysphoria, gender disaffirmation or disempowerment of the individual by healthcare providers,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peitzmeier SM, Bernstein IM, McDowell MJ, Pardee DJ, Agénor M, Alizaga NM, Reisner SL, Potter J | display-authors = 6 | title = Enacting power and constructing gender in cervical cancer screening encounters between transmasculine patients and health care providers | journal = Culture, Health & Sexuality | volume = 22 | issue = 12 | pages = 1315–1332 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 31661659 | pmc = 7188565 | doi = 10.1080/13691058.2019.1677942 }}</ref> or being misinformed of HPV and cervical cancer risks<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Potter J, Peitzmeier SM, Bernstein I, Reisner SL, Alizaga NM, Agénor M, Pardee DJ | title = Cervical Cancer Screening for Patients on the Female-to-Male Spectrum: a Narrative Review and Guide for Clinicians | journal = Journal of General Internal Medicine | volume = 30 | issue = 12 | pages = 1857–1864 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26160483 | pmc = 4636588 | doi = 10.1007/s11606-015-3462-8 }}</ref>  as well as many healthcare providers perceiving transmasculine individuals to be at low risk of cervical cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Agénor M, Peitzmeier SM, Bernstein IM, McDowell M, Alizaga NM, Reisner SL, Pardee DJ, Potter J | display-authors = 6 | title = Perceptions of cervical cancer risk and screening among transmasculine individuals: patient and provider perspectives | journal = Culture, Health & Sexuality | volume = 18 | issue = 10 | pages = 1192–1206 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27142466 | doi = 10.1080/13691058.2016.1177203 | s2cid = 22036018 }}</ref>

Transgender women who have not had bottom surgery have no risk of cervical cancer, as they do not have a cervix. Trans women who have had bottom surgery to create a vagina (vaginoplasty) and possibly a cervix, are at a very small risk to develop cancer in the tissues of their neo-vagina or neo-cervix as these tissues are made up of different cells than a cervix in a cisgender woman<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-10-10 |title=I'm trans or non-binary, does this affect my cancer screening? |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-symptoms/spot-cancer-early/screening/trans-and-non-binary-cancer-screening |access-date=2023-01-21 |website=Cancer Research UK |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=As a trans woman, do I need to get screened for cervical cancer? |url=https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/find-cancer-early/screening-in-lgbtq-communities/as-a-trans-woman-do-i-need-to-get-screened-for-cervical-cancer |access-date=21 January 2023 |website=Canadian Cancer Society}}</ref> Cervical cancer screening is not necessary in trans women who have undergone vaginoplasty because they do not have a cervix.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Labanca T, Mañero I, Pannunzio M | title = Transgender patients: considerations for routine gynecologic care and cancer screening | journal = International Journal of Gynecological Cancer | volume = 30 | issue = 12 | pages = 1990–1996 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33109526 | doi = 10.1136/ijgc-2020-001860 | s2cid = 225096075 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

[[Intersex]] people with a cervix are also able to have cervical cancer.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-10-20 |title=Causes of cervical cancer |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cervical-cancer/causes/ |access-date=2023-01-21 |website=nhs.uk |language=en}}</ref>
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