Editing Animal testing (section)

==Alternatives==
{{Main|Alternatives to animal testing}}
Most scientists and governments state that animal testing should cause as little suffering to animals as possible, and that animal tests should only be performed where necessary.{{citation needed|reason=Evidence must be provided|date=November 2024}}）The "[[Three Rs (animal research)|Three Rs]]" are guiding [[Moral obligation|principles]] for the use of animals in research in most countries.<ref name="altweb.jhsph" /><ref name=Flecknell>{{cite journal | author = Flecknell P | title = Replacement, reduction and refinement | journal = ALTEX | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 73–78 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12098013 }}</ref> Whilst replacement of animals, i.e. alternatives to animal testing, is one of the principles, their scope is much broader.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nc3rs.org.uk/page.asp?id=7 |title=What are the 3Rs? |publisher=NC3Rs |access-date=16 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140801110031/http://www.nc3rs.org.uk/page.asp?id=7 |archive-date=1 August 2014 }}</ref> Although such principles have been welcomed as a step forwards by some animal welfare groups,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Kolar R | title = ECVAM: desperately needed or superfluous? An animal welfare perspective | journal = Altern Lab Anim | volume = 30 | issue = Suppl 2 | pages = 169–74 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12513669 | doi = 10.1177/026119290203002S26 | doi-access = free }}</ref> they have also been criticized as both outdated by current research,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schuppli CA, Fraser D, McDonald M | title = Expanding the three Rs to meet new challenges in humane animal experimentation | journal = Altern Lab Anim | volume = 32 | issue = 5 | pages = 525–32 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15656775 | doi = 10.1177/026119290403200507 | s2cid = 25015151 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and of little practical effect in improving animal welfare.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Rusche B | title = The 3Rs and animal welfare – conflict or the way forward? | journal = ALTEX | volume = 20 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 63–76 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14671703 }}</ref> The scientists and engineers at Harvard's [[Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering|Wyss Institute]] have created "organs-on-a-chip", including the "lung-on-a-chip" and "gut-on-a-chip". Researchers at cellasys in Germany developed a "skin-on-a-chip".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Alexander FA, Eggert S, Wiest J | title = Skin-on-a-Chip: Transepithelial Electrical Resistance and Extracellular Acidification Measurements through an Automated Air-Liquid Interface | journal = Genes | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 114 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29466319 | pmc = 5852610 | doi = 10.3390/genes9020114 | doi-access = free }}</ref> These tiny devices contain human cells in a 3-dimensional system that mimics human organs. The chips can be used instead of animals in ''[[in vitro]]'' disease research, drug testing, and toxicity testing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-experimentation/alternatives-to-animal-testing.aspx |title=Alternatives to Animal Testing &#124; Animals Used for Experimentation &#124; The Issues |date=21 June 2010 |publisher=Peta.org |access-date=2015-04-06}}</ref> Researchers have also begun using 3-D bioprinters to create human tissues for ''in vitro'' testing.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rhodes|first1=Margaret|title=Inside L'Oreal's Plan to 3-D Print Human Skin|url=https://www.wired.com/2015/05/inside-loreals-plan-3-d-print-human-skin/|access-date=7 July 2015|agency=Wired|date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

Another non-animal research method is ''[[in silico]]'' or computer simulation and mathematical modeling which seeks to investigate and ultimately predict toxicity and drug effects on humans without using animals. This is done by investigating test compounds on a molecular level using recent advances in technological capabilities with the ultimate goal of creating treatments unique to each patient.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Watts|first1=Geoff|title=Alternatives to animal experimentation|journal=BMJ|date=27 January 2007|volume=334|issue=7586|pages=182–84|doi=10.1136/bmj.39058.469491.68|pmid=17255608|pmc=1782004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Edelman|first1=L|last2=Eddy|first2=J|last3=Price|first3=N|title=In silico models of cancer|journal=Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med|date=July–August 2010|volume=2|issue=4|doi=10.1002/wsbm.75|pmid=20836040|pmc=3157287|pages=438–59}}</ref> [[Microdosing]] is another alternative to the use of animals in experimentation. Microdosing is a process whereby volunteers are administered a small dose of a test compound allowing researchers to investigate its pharmacological affects without harming the volunteers. Microdosing can replace the use of animals in pre-clinical drug screening and can reduce the number of animals used in safety and toxicity testing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Microdosing|url=http://3rs.ccac.ca/en/research/refinement/microdosing.html|website=3Rs|publisher=Canadian Council on Animal Care in Science|access-date=7 July 2015|archive-date=7 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607172022/http://3rs.ccac.ca/en/research/refinement/microdosing.html}}</ref> Additional alternative methods include [[positron emission tomography]] (PET), which allows scanning of the [[human brain]] ''in vivo'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/154877.php |title=What Is A PET Scan? How Does A PET Scan Work? |date=23 June 2017 |publisher=Medicalnewstoday.com}}</ref> and [[Clinical study design|comparative]] [[Epidemiology|epidemiological]] studies of disease [[Risk factor (epidemiology)|risk factor]]s among human populations.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Jiang J, Liu B, Nasca PC, Han W, Zou X, Zeng X, Tian X, Wu Y, Zhao P, Li J |doi=10.7150/ijms.6.329|pmid=19918375| title=Comparative study of control selection in a national population -based case-control study: Estimating risk of smoking on cancer deaths in Chinese men| year=2009| journal=International Journal of Medical Sciences|volume=6|issue=6|pages=329–37| pmc=2777271}}</ref> Simulators and computer programs have also replaced the use of animals in [[dissection]], teaching and training exercises.<ref>{{cite news|last1=McNeil|first1=Donald|title=PETA's Donation to Help Save Lives, Animal and Human|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/14/health/petas-donation-to-help-save-lives-animal-and-human.html|access-date=7 July 2015|work=The New York Times|date=13 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Bernstein|first1=Fred|title=An On-Screen Alternative to Hands-On Dissection|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/04/science/an-onscreen-alternative-to-handson-dissection.html|access-date=7 July 2015|work=The New York Times|date=4 October 2005}}</ref>

Official bodies such as the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Test Methods of the [[European Commission]], the Interagency Coordinating Committee for the Validation of Alternative Methods in the US,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iccvam.niehs.nih.gov/ |title=NTP Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods – NTP |publisher=Iccvam.niehs.nih.gov |access-date=2015-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209203359/http://iccvam.niehs.nih.gov/ |archive-date=9 December 2013}}</ref> ZEBET in Germany,<ref>[http://www.bfr.bund.de/en/zebet_database_on_alternatives_to_animal_experiments_on_the_internet__animalt_zebet_-1508.html ZEBET database on alternatives to animal experiments on the Internet (AnimAlt-ZEBET)]. BfR (30 September 2004). Retrieved on 2013-01-21.</ref> and the Japanese Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods<ref>[http://jacvam.jp/en_about/en_about03.html About JaCVAM-Organization of JaCVAM] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511183409/http://jacvam.jp/en_about/en_about03.html |date=11 May 2012 }}. Jacvam.jp. Retrieved on 2013-01-21.</ref> (among others) also promote and disseminate the 3Rs. These bodies are mainly driven by responding to regulatory requirements, such as supporting the cosmetics testing ban in the EU by validating alternative methods. The European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing serves as a liaison between the European Commission and industries.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/epaa/index_en.htm EPAA – Home] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101045330/http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/epaa/index_en.htm |date=1 November 2013 }}. Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved on 2013-01-21.</ref> The European Consensus Platform for Alternatives coordinates efforts amongst EU member states.<ref>[http://www.ecopa.eu/ ecopa – european consensus-platform for alternatives]. Ecopa.eu. Retrieved on 2013-01-21.</ref> Academic centers also investigate alternatives, including the Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing at the [[Johns Hopkins University]]<ref>[http://caat.jhsph.edu/ Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing – Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health]. Caat.jhsph.edu. Retrieved on 2013-01-21.</ref> and the NC3Rs in the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nc3rs.org.uk/ |title=NC3Rs |publisher=NC3Rs.org.uk |access-date=2015-04-06}}</ref>