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===Sources=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|last=Abbas |first=Tahir |title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics: The British Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JdC90uc8PfQC&pg=PA9 |publisher=Routledge |location=London|isbn=978-0-4155-7225-5 |lccn=2009050163 |year=2011}} * {{Cite book |last=Abun-Nasr |first=Jamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC |title=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1987 |isbn=0521337674 |location=Cambridge |pages= |language=en}} * {{cite web|last=al-Hassan |first=Ahmad Y. |author-link=Ahmad Y Hassan |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%202.html#_edn2 |title=Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises in Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries: A Gap in the History of Gunpowder and Cannon |website=History of Science and Technology in Islam |access-date=3 May 2015 |archive-date=20 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920081014/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%202.html |year=2002 |url-status=live }} * {{cite web|last=al-Hassan |first=Ahmad Y. |author-link=Ahmad Y Hassan |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%2071.html |title=Transfer of Islamic Technology to the West: Part II: Transmission of Islamic Engineering |website=History of Science and Technology in Islam |access-date=3 May 2015 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924030451/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.html |year=2002a |url-status=live }} * {{cite web|last=al-Hassan |first=Ahmad Y. |author-link=Ahmad Y Hassan |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%207.html |title=Transfer of Islamic Technology to the West: Part I: Avenues of Technology Transfer |website=History of Science and Technology in Islam |access-date=3 May 2015 |archive-date=7 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140507100118/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%207.html |year=2002b |url-status=live }} * {{cite news|last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |title=The "First True Scientist" |work=BBC.co.uk |date=4 January 2009 |access-date=3 May 2015 |archive-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426041228/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |url-status=live }} * {{cite web|publisher=Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/ |title=The Islamic World to 1600 |access-date=30 October 2008 |year=1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005003551/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/ |archive-date=5 October 2008 |ref={{sfnRef|University of Calgary|1998}} }} * {{cite book|last=Baker |first=Hugh D. 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Tauris |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-78673-309-2 |language=en}} * {{cite book|last=de Camp |first= L. Sprague|author-link= L. Sprague de Camp |title=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy |isbn=0-87054-076-9 |lccn=76017991 |publisher=Arkham House |year=1976 |location=Sauk City, WI }} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Dimand |first=Maurice S. |editor1-last=Myers |editor1-first=Bernard S. |editor2-last= Myers |editor2-first=Shirley D. |encyclopedia=McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Art |year=1969 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company |location=New York|volume=3: Greece to Master F. V. B. |title=Islamic Glass and Crystal |lccn=68026314 }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Dimand | first = Maurice S. | editor1-last = Myers | editor1-first = Bernard S. | editor2-last = Myers | editor2-first = Shirley D. | encyclopedia = McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Art | year = 1969a | publisher = McGraw-Hill Book Company | location = New York | volume = 3: Greece to Master F. V. B. | title = Islamic Painting | pages = 205–211 | lccn = 68026314 }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Dimand | first = Maurice S. | editor1-last = Myers | editor1-first = Bernard S. | editor2-last = Myers | editor2-first = Shirley D. | encyclopedia = McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Art | year = 1969b | publisher = McGraw-Hill Book Company | location = New York | volume = 3: Greece to Master F. V. B. | title = Islamic Pottery and Tiles | pages = 211–216 | lccn = 68026314 }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Dimand | first = Maurice S. | editor1-last = Myers | editor1-first = Bernard S. | editor2-last = Myers | editor2-first = Shirley D. | encyclopedia = McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Art | year = 1969c | publisher = McGraw-Hill Book Company | location = New York| volume = 3: Greece to Master F. V. B. | title = Islamic Textiles | pages = 216–220 | lccn = 68026314 }} * {{cite book | last = Dunn | first = Kevin M. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JOtJKgWkPuQC&pg=PA166 | title = Caveman Chemistry: 28 Projects, from the Creation of Fire to the Production of Plastics | publisher = Universal Publishers | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-1-5811-2566-5 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Dupuy | first1 = R. 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Holt | title = Some Observations on the 'Abbāsid Caliphate of Cairo | journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies | publisher = University of London | volume = 47 | issue = 3 | year = 1984 | pages = 501–507 | doi=10.1017/s0041977x00113710| s2cid = 161092185 }} * {{cite book | last = Huff | first = Toby E. | title = The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0-5218-2302-1 | lccn = 2002035017 | year = 2003 | edition = 2nd }} * {{cite book | last = Isichei | first = Elizabeth | year = 1997| title = A History of African Societies to 1870 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican00isic | url-access = registration | page = [https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican00isic/page/192 192] | isbn = 978-0-5214-5599-2 | lccn = 97159218 | location = Cambridge}} * {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiOMDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |title=The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-300-22728-4 |page= |language=en}} * {{cite book | last = Jenkins | first = Everett Allo | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oLnXAAAAMAAJ | title = The Muslim Diaspora: A Comprehensive Reference to the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas | volume = 1 | year = 1999 | publisher = McFarland | isbn = 0-7864-0431-0 | location = Jefferson, NC | lccn = 98049332 }} * {{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HCH5e8smjggC |title=The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-134-53113-4 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh N. |url= |title=The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century |publisher=Pearson/Longman |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-582-40525-7 |edition=2nd |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZnDCwAAQBAJ |title=The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-35807-7 |language=en}} * {{cite book | last = Kitagawa | first = Joseph Mitsuo | title = The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture | year = 1989 | publisher = Macmillan Publishing Co | location = New York| isbn = 0-0289-7211-2 | lccn = 89008129 | url = https://archive.org/details/religioustraditi00kita }} * {{cite book|last=Kraus|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Kraus (Arabist)|year=1942–1943|title=Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. 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Jâbir et la science grecque|publisher=Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale|location=Cairo|oclc=468740510|isbn=978-3-487-09115-0}} * {{cite journal | last = Labib | first = Subhi Y. | year = 1969 | title = Capitalism in Medieval Islam | journal = The Journal of Economic History | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 79–96 | doi = 10.1017/S0022050700097837 | s2cid = 153962294 }} * {{cite book | last = Lapidus | first = Ira | author-link = Ira Lapidus | title = A History of Islamic Societies | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge| year = 2002 | isbn = 0-521-77056-4 }} * {{Cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcPZ1k65pqkC&pg=PA95 |title=Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-521-51441-5 |language=en}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Leaman |first=Oliver |url=http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/H057 |title=Islamic Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=1998 |access-date=3 May 2015 |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606082214/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/islamic-philosophy;jsessionid=B31B033F077DD5E68E09CC9D35C02105 |url-status=dead }} * {{ cite book | last = Lewis | first = Bernard | editor1-last = Holt | editor1-first = Peter M. | editor2-last = Lambton | editor2-first = Ann K. 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