Editing Seminole Wars (section)

==Third Seminole War==<!-- This section is linked from [[Miami-Dade County, Florida]] -->

===Increased Army presence and Indian attacks===
By late 1855, there were more than 700 Army troops stationed on the Florida peninsula. In fall of 1855, a group of Seminole gathered near [[Taylor Creek, Florida|Taylor Creek]], on the north-east side of [[Lake Okeechobee]]. There it was generally agreed that they would strike back at the increasing pressure being put on them and attack when an opportunity presented itself. According to one account, a warrior named Tiger, possibly Thlocklo Tustenuggee (Tom Tiger), argued in favor of military action while another leader, named Chipco, opposed war.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Covington |first1=James W. |title=An Episode in the Third Seminole War |journal=The Florida Historical Quarterly |date=1966 |volume=45 |issue=1 |page=46 |jstor=30145700 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/30145700 |access-date=13 January 2022 |issn=0015-4113 |archive-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113200743/https://www.jstor.org/stable/30145700 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 7 December 1855, First Lieutenant George Hartsuff, who had led previous patrols into the reservation, left Fort Myers with ten men and two wagons. They found no Seminoles but did pass corn fields and three deserted villages, including Billy Bowlegs' village. On the evening of 19 December, Hartsuff told his men that they would be returning to Fort Myers the next day. As the men were loading the wagons and saddling their horses the next morning (20 December 1855), forty Seminoles led by Billy Bowlegs attacked the camp. Several soldiers were shot, including Lieutenant Hartsuff, who managed to hide himself. The Seminoles killed and scalped four men in the camp, killed the wagon mules, looted and burned the wagons and took several horses. Seven men, four of them wounded, made it back to Fort Myers.<ref>Covington. pp. 128–9.</ref>

When the news of the attack reached Tampa, the men of the city elected militia officers and organized companies. The newly formed militia marched to the Peace River valley, recruited more men, and manned some forts along the river. Governor [[James Broome]] started organizing as many volunteer companies as he could. Because the state had limited funds, he tried to have the Army accept the volunteers. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis accepted two infantry companies and three mounted companies, about 260 men. Governor Broome kept another 400 men mobilized under state control. The state troops, both those accepted by the Army and those remaining under state control, had been partly armed and supplied by private donations. General Jesse Carter was appointed by Governor Broome as "special agent ... without military rank" to lead the state troops. Carter set half of the state troops to growing crops, and so only 200 of his men were available for patrols. A Tampa newspaper noted that the mounted patrols preferred to patrol in open country, which was easier for the horses, but it allowed the Seminoles to see them coming.<ref>Covington. pp. 129–30.</ref>

On 6 January 1856, two men gathering [[Zamia integrifolia|coontie]] south of the [[Miami River (Florida)|Miami River]] were killed. The settlers in the area promptly fled to Fort Dallas and [[Key Biscayne]]. A party of some twenty Seminoles under [[Oscen Tustenuggee]] attacked a wood-cutting patrol outside of Fort Denaud, killing five of the six men. Despite the positioning of militia units to defend the area, the Seminoles also raided along the coast south of Tampa Bay. They killed one man and burned a house in what is now [[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota]], and on 31 March 1856, they tried to attack the "Braden Castle", the plantation home of Dr. Joseph Braden, in what is now [[Bradenton, Florida|Bradenton]]. The "Castle" was too strong for them, but they led away seven slaves and three mules. Burdened with prisoners and loot, the Seminoles did not move fast. While they were stopped at [[Big Charley Apopka Creek]] eating barbecued beef from a cow they had found and slaughtered, the militia caught up with them. The militiamen killed two of the Seminoles and recaptured the slaves and mules taken from Dr. Braden's plantation. The scalp of one of the dead Seminoles was displayed in Tampa, the other in Manatee.<ref>Covington. pp. 130–2.</ref>

During April, regular Army and militiamen patrolled around and into the reservation but made little contact with the Seminoles. One six-hour battle was fought near Bowlegs Town in April, with four regulars killed and three wounded before the Seminoles withdrew. The Seminoles continued to carry out small raids around the state. On 14 May 1856, fifteen Seminoles attacked the farmhouse of Captain Robert Bradley north of Tampa, killing two of his young children. One Seminole was killed by Bradley. Bradley may have been targeted because he had killed Tiger Tail's brother during the Second Seminole War. On 17 May, Seminoles attacked a wagon train in central Florida, killing three men. Mail and stagecoach service in and out of Tampa was suspended until the military could provide protection.<ref>Covington. pp. 132–3.</ref>

On 14 June 1856, Seminoles attacked the farm of Willoughby Tillis {{convert|2|mi|km|spell=in}} from Fort Meade. All of the household made it safely into the house, and they were able to hold the Seminoles at bay. The gunfire was heard at Fort Meade, and seven mounted militiamen under Lt. Alderman Carlton responded. Three of the militiamen—Lt. Alderman Carlton, Lott Whidden, and William Parker—were killed and two others wounded. More militiamen pursued the Seminoles but had to retreat when a sudden rain wet their powder. On 16 June, twenty militiamen from [[Fort Fraser (Florida)|Fort Fraser]] surprised a group of Seminoles along the Peace River, killing some of the Seminoles. The militiamen withdrew after losing two dead—Robert F. Prine, and George Howell—and three others wounded. They claimed to have killed as many as twenty Seminoles, but the Indians admitted to only four dead and two wounded. However, one of the dead was Ocsen Tustenuggee, who seems to have been the only chief who would actively lead attacks against settlements.<ref>Covington. pp. 133–4.</ref>

The citizens of Florida were becoming disenchanted with the militia. There were complaints that the militiamen would pretend to patrol for a day or two and then go home to work their fields, and that they were given to idleness, drunkenness, and thievery. The officers were reported to be unwilling to submit required paperwork. Most importantly, the militia had failed to prevent attacks against settlers.<ref>Covington. pp. 134–5.</ref>

===New strategy===
In September 1856, Brigadier General [[William S. Harney]] returned to Florida as commander of the federal troops. Remembering lessons he had learned in the Second Seminole War, Harney set up a system of forts in a line across Florida, and patrols moved deep into Seminole territory. He planned to confine the Seminoles to the Big Cypress Swamp and the Everglades, because he believed they would be unable to live there during the wet season. He anticipated being able to catch the Indians when they left their flooded sanctuaries seeking dry land for raising their crops. Part of Harney's plan involved using boats to reach islands and other dry spots in the swamps. He first made one more attempt to negotiate with the Seminoles but was unable to make contact with them. In early January 1857, he ordered his troops to actively pursue the Indians. Harney's plan, however, had shown few results by the time he and the Fifth Infantry were transferred to [[Kansas]] to aid in the [[Bleeding Kansas|uprisings]] there in April.<ref>Covington. pp. 135–6.</ref>

Colonel [[Gustavus Loomis]] replaced General Harney as commander in Florida, but the withdrawal of the Fifth Infantry left him with only ten companies of the Fourth Artillery, which was later reduced to just four companies. Loomis organized volunteers into boat companies, which were given metal "alligator boats" that had been built earlier specifically for use in the Big Cypress Swamp and Everglades. {{convert|30|ft|m|spell=In}} long, pointed at both ends, and drawing two to {{convert|3|ft|m|spell=in}} of water, the boats could carry up to sixteen men into the swamps. These boat companies were able to capture many Indians, primarily women and children. The regulars did not do as well. Some officers, including Captain [[Abner Doubleday]], observed that the Seminoles easily avoided the Army patrols. Doubleday attributed this to the fact that most of the enlisted men were recent immigrants who had no skills in [[wikt:woodcraft|woodcraft]].<ref>Covington. pp. 135–40.</ref>

In 1857, ten companies of Florida militia were taken into federal service, totaling almost 800 men by September. In November these troops captured eighteen women and children from Billy Bowlegs' band. The troops also found and destroyed several towns and fields of crops. The troops moved into the Big Cypress Swamp starting on [[New Year's Day]] 1858, again destroying the towns and cultivated fields they found. Another delegation from the Indian Territory arrived in Florida in January and attempted to contact Bowlegs. The troops stood down while the attempt was made, and Bowlegs was contacted. The previous year the Seminoles had finally been given their own reservation in Indian Territory separate from the Creeks. Cash payments of US$500 to each warrior (more to the chiefs) and $100 to each woman were promised. On 15 March, Bowlegs' and Assinwar's bands accepted the offer and agreed to go west. On 4 May, a total of 163 Seminoles (including some captured earlier) were shipped to New Orleans. On 8 May 1858, Colonel Loomis declared the war to be over.<ref>Covington. pp. 140–3.</ref>