Editing Philosophy of science (section)

===Philosophy of medicine===
{{Main|Philosophy of medicine}}
[[File:Papyrus text; fragment of Hippocratic oath. Wellcome L0034090.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A fragment of the [[Hippocratic Oath]] from [[Oxyrhynchus Papyri|the third century]]]]
Beyond [[medical ethics]] and [[bioethics]], the philosophy of medicine is a branch of philosophy that includes the [[epistemology]] and [[ontology]]/[[metaphysics]] of medicine. Within the epistemology of medicine, [[evidence-based medicine]] (EBM) (or evidence-based practice (EBP)) has attracted attention, most notably the roles of randomisation,<ref name="Papineau 1994">{{cite journal | last1 = Papineau | first1 = D | year = 1994 | title = The Virtues of Randomization | journal = British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 437–450 | doi=10.1093/bjps/45.2.437| s2cid = 123314067 }}</ref><ref name="Worrall 2002">{{cite journal | last1 = Worrall | first1 = J | year = 2002 | title = What Evidence in Evidence-Based Medicine? | journal = Philosophy of Science | volume = 69 | issue = 3| pages = S316–330 | jstor = 3081103 | doi = 10.1086/341855 | s2cid = 55078796 }}</ref><ref name="Worrall 2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Worrall | first1 = J. | year = 2007 | title = Why there's no cause to randomize | journal = British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | volume = 58 | issue = 3| pages = 451–488 | doi=10.1093/bjps/axm024| citeseerx = 10.1.1.120.7314 | s2cid = 16964968 }}</ref> [[Blind experiment|blinding]] and [[placebo]] controls. Related to these areas of investigation, ontologies of specific interest to the philosophy of medicine include [[Cartesian dualism]], the monogenetic conception of disease<ref name="Lee 2012">Lee, K., 2012. ''The Philosophical Foundations of Modern Medicine'', London/New York, Palgrave/Macmillan.</ref> and the conceptualization of 'placebos' and 'placebo effects'.<ref name="Grünbaum 1981">{{cite journal | last1 = Grünbaum | first1 = A | year = 1981 | title = The Placebo Concept | journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy | volume = 19 | issue = 2| pages = 157–167 | doi=10.1016/0005-7967(81)90040-1| pmid = 7271692 }}</ref><ref name="Gøtzsche 1994">{{cite journal | last1 = Gøtzsche | first1 = P.C. | s2cid = 33650340 | year = 1994 | title = Is there logic in the placebo? | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92273-x | pmid = 7934350 | journal = Lancet | volume = 344 | issue = 8927| pages = 925–926 }}</ref><ref name="Nunn 2009">Nunn, R., 2009. It's time to put the placebo out of our misery" ''British Medical Journal'' 338, b1568.</ref><ref name="Turner 2012">{{cite journal | last1 = Turner | first1 = A | s2cid = 4488616 | year = 2012 | title = Placebos" and the logic of placebo comparison | journal = Biology & Philosophy | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 419–432 | doi = 10.1007/s10539-011-9289-8 | hdl = 1983/6426ce5a-ab57-419c-bc3c-e57d20608807 | url = https://research-information.bristol.ac.uk/en/publications/placebos-and-the-logic-of-placebo-comparison(6426ce5a-ab57-419c-bc3c-e57d20608807).html | access-date = 2018-12-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181229075454/https://research-information.bristol.ac.uk/en/publications/placebos-and-the-logic-of-placebo-comparison(6426ce5a-ab57-419c-bc3c-e57d20608807).html | archive-date = 2018-12-29 | url-status = live | hdl-access = free }}</ref> There is also a growing interest in the metaphysics of medicine,<ref name="Worrall 2011">{{cite journal | last1 = Worrall | first1 = J | year = 2011 | title = Causality in medicine: getting back to the Hill top| journal = Preventive Medicine | volume = 53 | issue = 4–5| pages = 235–238 | doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.08.009 | pmid=21888926}}</ref> particularly the idea of causation. Philosophers of medicine might not only be interested in how medical knowledge is generated, but also in the nature of such phenomena. Causation is of interest because the purpose of much medical research is to establish causal relationships, e.g. what causes disease, or what causes people to get better.<ref name="Cartwright 2009">{{cite journal | last1 = Cartwright | first1 = N | s2cid = 56203659 | year = 2009 | title = What are randomised controlled trials good for? | journal = Philosophical Studies | volume = 147 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–70 | doi = 10.1007/s11098-009-9450-2 | url = https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt42v4w8k1/qt42v4w8k1.pdf | access-date = 2019-09-01 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180724112810/https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt42v4w8k1/qt42v4w8k1.pdf | archive-date = 2018-07-24 | url-status = live | doi-access = free }}</ref>