Editing Meditation (section)

===Abrahamic religions===

====Judaism====
{{Main|Jewish meditation}}

Judaism has made use of meditative practices for thousands of years.<ref name=Verman1 >''The history and varieties of Jewish meditation'' by Mark Verman 1997 {{ISBN|978-1-56821-522-8}} p. 1</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jacobs |first=L. |year=1976 |title=Jewish Mystical Testimonies |place=Jerusalem |publisher=Keter Publishing House Jerusalem}}</ref> For instance, in the [[Torah]], the patriarch [[Isaac]] is described as going ''"לשוח"'' (''lasuach'') in the field&nbsp;– a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 24:63).{{sfn|Kaplan|1978|p=101}} Similarly, there are indications throughout the [[Tanakh]] (the Hebrew [[Bible]]) that the [[Old Testament prophets|prophets]] meditated.<ref name=Verman45 >''The history and varieties of Jewish meditation'' by Mark Verman 1997 {{ISBN|978-1-56821-522-8}} p. 45</ref> In the [[Old Testament]], there are two [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words for meditation: ''hāgâ'' ({{langx|he|הגה}}), ''to sigh'' or ''murmur'', but also ''to meditate'', and ''sîḥâ'' ({{langx|he|שיחה}}),  ''to muse'', or ''rehearse in one's mind''.<ref name="Kaplan, A. 1985">{{cite book |last=Kaplan |first=A. |year=1985 |title=Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide |publisher=New York Schocken Books }}</ref>

Classical Jewish texts espouse a wide range of meditative practices, often associated with the cultivation of ''[[kavanah]]'' or intention. The first layer of [[Halakha|rabbinic law]], the [[Mishnah]], describes ancient sages "waiting" for an hour before their prayers, "in order to direct their hearts to the Omnipresent One" ([[Mishnah]] [[Berakhot (tractate)|Berakhot]] 5:1). Other early [[rabbinic texts]] include instructions for visualizing the Divine Presence (B. [[Talmud]] [[Sanhedrin (tractate)|Sanhedrin]] 22a) and breathing with conscious gratitude for every breath ([[Genesis Rabba]] 14:9).<ref>Buxbaum, Y. (1990) ''Jewish Spiritual Practices'', New York, Rowman and Littlefield, pp. 108-10, 423-35.</ref>

One of the best-known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the [[Merkabah]], from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God).<ref name="Kaplan, A. 1985"/> Some meditative traditions have been encouraged in [[Kabbalah]], and some Jews have described Kabbalah as an inherently meditative field of study.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Scholem |first1=Gershom Gerhard |title=Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism |date=1961 |publisher=Schocken Books |isbn=978-0-8052-1042-2 |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kD2y4wMOlAoC&pg=PA34 |access-date=2018-05-09 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095145/https://books.google.com/books?id=kD2y4wMOlAoC&pg=PA34 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Kaplan|1982}}<ref>Matt, D.C. (1996) ''The Essential Kabbalah: The Heart of Jewish Mysticism'', San Francisco, HarperCollins.</ref> Kabbalistic meditation often involves the mental visualization of the supernal realms. [[Aryeh Kaplan]] has argued that the ultimate purpose of Kabbalistic meditation is to understand and cleave to the Divine.<ref name="Kaplan, A. 1985"/>

Meditation has been of interest to a wide variety of modern Jews. In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called ''"[[hitbodedut]]"'' (''התבודדות'', alternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained in [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic]], and [[Mussar Movement|Mussar]] writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi [[Nachman of Breslav]]. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of being alone.{{sfn|Kaplan|1978|loc=op cit p. 2}} Another Hasidic system is the [[Habad]] method of "hisbonenus", related to the [[Sephirah]] of "Binah", Hebrew for understanding.{{sfn|Kaplan|1982|loc=op cit, p. 13}} This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings. The [[Musar Movement]], founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter in the middle of the nineteenth-century, emphasized meditative practices of [[introspection]] and [[Mental image|visualization]] that could help to improve moral character.<ref>Claussen, Geoffrey. [https://www.academia.edu/1502958/The_Practice_of_Musar "The Practice of Musar"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902005723/http://www.academia.edu/1502958/The_Practice_of_Musar |date=2013-09-02 }}. Conservative Judaism 63, no. 2 (2012): 3–26. Retrieved 10 June 2014</ref> Conservative rabbi [[Alan Lew]] has emphasized meditation playing an important role in the process of [[Teshuvah|''teshuvah'' (repentance)]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2006/09/15/september-15-2006-rabbi-alan-lew/3733/|title=Rabbi Alan Lew|date=2006-09-15|website=Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly, PBS|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-09|archive-date=2019-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728150811/https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2006/09/15/september-15-2006-rabbi-alan-lew/3733/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_2BA8b7eUEUC|title=Be Still and Get Going: A Jewish Meditation Practice for Real Life|last=Lew|first=Alan|date=2007-07-31|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=978-0-316-02591-1|language=en|access-date=2019-08-09|archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095151/https://books.google.com/books?id=_2BA8b7eUEUC|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Jewish Buddhist]]s have adopted Buddhist styles of meditation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Michaelson |first1=Jay |title=Judaism, Meditation and The B-Word |url=https://forward.com/culture/3652/judaism-meditation-and-the-b-word/ |work=The Forward |date=10 June 2005 |access-date=9 May 2018 |archive-date=10 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510115414/https://forward.com/culture/3652/judaism-meditation-and-the-b-word/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Christianity====
[[File:Padre Pio.jpg|thumb|upright|Saint [[Pio of Pietrelcina]] stated: "Through the study of books one seeks God; by meditation one finds Him."<ref>''The Rosary: A Path Into Prayer'' by Liz Kelly 2004 {{ISBN|0-8294-2024-X}} pp. 79, 86</ref>]]
{{Main|Christian meditation}}

[[Christian meditation]] is a term for a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of [[God]].<ref>''Christian Meditation for Beginners'' by Thomas Zanzig, Marilyn Kielbasa 2000, {{ISBN|0-88489-361-8}} p. 7</ref> In the [[Roman Empire]], by 20 BCE [[Philo of Alexandria]] had written on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention (prosoche) and concentration<ref>Hadot, Pierre; Arnold I. Davidson (1995) ''Philosophy as a way of life'' {{ISBN|0-631-18033-8}} pp. 83–84</ref> and by the 3rd century [[Plotinus]] had developed meditative techniques. The word meditation comes from the Latin word ''meditatum'', which means to "concentrate" or "to ponder". Monk [[Guigo II]] introduced this terminology for the first time in the 12th century AD. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a [[biblical]] scene involving [[Jesus]] and the [[Virgin Mary]]) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.<ref>'' An introduction to Christian spirituality'' by F. Antonisamy, 2000 {{ISBN|81-7109-429-5}} pp. 76–77</ref> Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three-stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first level vocal [[prayer]], but is more structured than the multiple layers of [[contemplation]] in Christianity.<ref>''Simple Ways to Pray'' by Emilie Griffin 2005 {{ISBN|0-7425-5084-2}} p. 134</ref>

Between the 10th and 14th centuries, [[hesychasm]] was developed, particularly on [[Mount Athos]] in Greece, and involves the repetition of the [[Jesus prayer]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101021081733/http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html Archived] from [http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html the original] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729005209/http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html |date=29 July 2010 }} on 11 February 2014.</ref> Interactions with Indians or the [[Sufis]] may have influenced the [[Eastern Christian]] meditation approach to hesychasm, but this is unproven.<ref>''An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches'' by John Binns 2002 {{ISBN|0-521-66738-0}} p. 128</ref>

[[Western Christian]] meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation progressed from the 6th century practice of Bible reading among [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine]] monks called [[Lectio Divina]], i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monk [[Guigo II]] in the 12th century with the Latin terms ''lectio'', ''meditatio'', ''oratio'', and ''contemplatio'' (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation was further developed by saints such as [[Ignatius of Loyola]] and [[Teresa of Avila]] in the 16th century.<ref>''Christian Spirituality: A Historical Sketch'' by George Lane 2005 {{ISBN|0-8294-2081-9}} p. 20</ref><ref>''Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition'' by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 {{ISBN|0-8091-3660-0}} p. 38</ref><ref>''The Oblate Life'' by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 {{ISBN|0-8146-3176-2}} p. 109</ref><ref>''After Augustine: the meditative reader and the text'' by [[Brian Stock (historian)|Brian Stock]] 2001 {{ISBN|0-8122-3602-5}} p. 105</ref>

On 28 April 2021, [[Pope Francis]], in an address to the General Audience, said that meditation is a need for everyone.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |date=2021-04-28 |title=Pope at Audience: Meditating is a way of encountering Jesus - Vatican News |url=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-04/pope-francis-general-audience-meditation-prayer.html |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=www.vaticannews.va |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219161435/https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-04/pope-francis-general-audience-meditation-prayer.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=kathleenaleteia |date=2021-04-28 |title=Meditation is more than a self-help trend, explains Pope |url=https://aleteia.org/2021/04/28/meditation-is-more-than-a-self-help-trend-explains-pope/ |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=Aleteia — Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219161435/https://aleteia.org/2021/04/28/meditation-is-more-than-a-self-help-trend-explains-pope/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He noted that the term "meditation" has had many meanings throughout history, and that "the ancients used to say that the organ of prayer is the heart."<ref name=":4" />

In Catholic Christianity, the [[Rosary]] is a devotion for the meditation of the mysteries of Jesus and Mary.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fatima.org/it/essentials/whatucando/potetefare.asp |title=Home |access-date=2017-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601223011/http://www.fatima.org/it/essentials/whatucando/potetefare.asp |archive-date=2017-06-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theholyrosary.org/|title=The Holy Rosary|website=www.theholyrosary.org|access-date=2017-06-18|archive-date=2020-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122090242/http://www.theholyrosary.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> "The gentle repetition of its prayers makes it an excellent means to moving into deeper meditation. It gives us an opportunity to open ourselves to God's word, to refine our interior gaze by turning our minds to the life of Christ. The first principle is that meditation is learned through practice. Many people who practice rosary meditation begin very simply and gradually develop a more sophisticated meditation. The meditator learns to hear an interior voice, the voice of God.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.loyolapress.com/our-catholic-faith/prayer/personal-prayer-life/different-ways-to-pray/the-rosary-as-a-tool-for-meditation-by-liz-kelly|title=The Rosary as a Tool for Meditation by Liz Kelly|website=www.loyolapress.com|access-date=2017-06-18|archive-date=2017-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706182921/http://www.loyolapress.com/our-catholic-faith/prayer/personal-prayer-life/different-ways-to-pray/the-rosary-as-a-tool-for-meditation-by-liz-kelly|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, the [[chotki]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] denomination, the [[Wreath of Christ]] of the [[Lutheran]] faith, and the [[Anglican prayer beads]] of the [[Anglican|Episcopalian]] tradition are used for Christian prayer and meditation.<ref name="Dhiman2020">{{cite book |last1=Dhiman |first1=Satinder K. |title=The Routledge Companion to Mindfulness at Work |date=8 September 2020 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-429-53486-7 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Winston2008">{{cite book |last1=Winston |first1=Kimberly |title=Bead One, Pray Too |date=1 March 2008 |publisher=[[Church Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8192-2092-9 |language=English}}</ref>

According to [[Edmund P. Clowney]], Christian meditation contrasts with Eastern forms of meditation as radically as the portrayal of [[God the Father]] in the Bible contrasts with depictions of [[Krishna]] or [[Brahman]] in Indian teachings.<ref>''Christian Meditation'' by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 {{ISBN|1-57383-227-8}} p. 12</ref> Unlike some Eastern styles, most styles of Christian meditation do not rely on the repeated use of [[mantra]]s, and yet are also intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.<ref>''Christian Meditation'' by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 {{ISBN|1-57383-227-8}} pp. 12–13</ref><ref>''The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3'' by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 {{ISBN|90-04-12654-6}} p. 488</ref> In ''[[Aspects of Christian meditation]]'', the [[Catholic Church]] warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing Christian and Eastern styles of meditation.<ref>[http://www.ewtn.com/library/curia/cdfmed.htm EWTN: Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502022624/http://www.ewtn.com/library/curia/cdfmed.htm |date=2010-05-02 }} ''Letter on certain aspects of Christian meditation'' (in English), 15 October 1989]</ref> In 2003, in ''[[A Christian reflection on the New Age]]'' the [[Holy See|Vatican]] announced that the "Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the [[New Age]]".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2003/feb/08/local/me-relignewage8/2 |title=Los Angeles Times, February 8, 2003, ''New Age Beliefs Aren't Christian, Vatican Finds'' |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=1 July 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120701141606/http://articles.latimes.com/2003/feb/08/local/me-relignewage8/2 |archive-date=1 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2722743.stm|title=Vatican sounds New Age alert|date=4 February 2003|via=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=1 July 2010|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025115902/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2722743.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg_doc_20030203_press-conf-new-age_en.html|title=Prersentation of Holy See's Document on New Age|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=2020-03-15|archive-date=2007-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809113335/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg_doc_20030203_press-conf-new-age_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Islam====
[[File:Whirling dervishes, Rumi Fest 2007.jpg|thumb|Whirling dervishes]]
{{Main|Muraqabah}}
{{See also|Sufism|Sama (Sufism)|Dhikr#Sufi view}}

''[[Dhikr]]'' (''zikr'') is a type of meditation within Islam, meaning remembering and mentioning God, which involves the repetition of the 99 Names of God since the 8th or 9th century.<ref name="Prayer page 147-149">''Prayer: a history'' by Philip Zaleski, Carol Zaleski 2005 {{ISBN|0-618-15288-1}} pp. 147–49</ref><ref name="Education' page 63">''Global Encyclopaedia of Education'' by Rama Sankar Yadav & B.N. Mandal 2007 {{ISBN|978-81-8220-227-6}} p. 63</ref> It is interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufism or Islamic mysticism.<ref name="Prayer page 147-149"/><ref name="Education' page 63"/> This became one of the essential elements of Sufism as it was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed with ''fikr'' (thinking) which leads to knowledge.<ref>''Sainthood and revelatory discourse'' by David Emmanuel Singh 2003 {{ISBN|81-7214-728-7}} p. 154</ref> By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.<ref name="Spiritual Psychology' page 109">''Spiritual Psychology'' by Akbar Husain 2006 {{ISBN|81-8220-095-4}} p. 109</ref>

Sufism uses a meditative procedure like Buddhist [[samadhi (Buddhism)|concentration]], involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, ''[[muraqabah]]'' takes the form of ''tamarkoz'', "concentration" in [[Persian language|Persian]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0533316489224010 |title=Book Reviews |journal=Group Analysis |volume=22 |issue=4 |page=434 |year=2016 |last1=Dwivedi |first1=Kedar Nath |s2cid=220434155 }}</ref>

''Tafakkur'' or ''tadabbur'' in Sufism literally means ''reflection upon the [[universe]]'': this is considered to permit access to a form of [[cognitive]] and [[emotion]]al development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the [[infinity|infinite]]. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one's submission to God.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Khalifa | first=Rashad | title=Quran: The Final Testament | publisher=Universal Unity | year=2001 | page=536 | isbn=978-1-881893-05-9 }}</ref>
	
[[Dervish]]es of certain Sufi orders practice [[Sufi whirling|whirling]], a form of physically active meditation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holmes |first1=David S. |title=Meditation and Somatic Arousal Reduction |journal=American Psychologist |date=January 1984 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.39.1.1 |pmid=6142668 |url=http://www.appstate.edu/~bromanfulksj/Holmes%20-%20Meditation%20and%20Somatic%20Arousal%20Reduction.pdf |access-date=2 July 2020 |archive-date=22 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922081339/http://www.appstate.edu/~bromanfulksj/Holmes%20-%20Meditation%20and%20Somatic%20Arousal%20Reduction.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Baháʼí Faith====
In the teachings of the [[Baháʼí Faith]], which derives from an Islamic context but is universalist in orientation, meditation is a primary tool for spiritual development,<ref name="bahai-meditation">{{cite web | title=Meditation | access-date=2020-12-16 | url=https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/life-spirit/devotion/meditation | publisher=Baháʼí International Community | year=2015 | archive-date=2020-11-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112033221/https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/life-spirit/devotion/meditation | url-status=live }}</ref> involving reflection on the words of God.<ref name="Smith-meditation">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Smith |first=Peter |encyclopedia=A concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith |title=Meditation |year=2000 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-85168-184-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/243 243–44] |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/243 }}</ref> While prayer and meditation are linked, where meditation happens generally in a prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning toward God,<ref name="Smith-prayer">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Smith |first=Peter |encyclopedia=A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title=Prayer |year=2000 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-85168-184-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/274 274] |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/274 }}</ref> and meditation is seen as a communion with one's self where one focuses on the divine.<ref name="Smith-meditation"/>

In [[Baháʼí teachings]] the purpose of meditation is to strengthen one's understanding of the words of God, and to make one's soul more susceptible to their potentially transformative power,<ref name="Smith-meditation"/> more receptive to the need for both prayer and meditation to bring about and maintain a spiritual communion with God.<ref>Hatcher, William S. (1982). ''[https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_bw18_spirituality The Concept of Spirituality] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415020445/https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_bw18_spirituality |date=2021-04-15 }}''. Bahá'í Studies, volume 11. Association for Bahá'í Studies. Ottawa.</ref>

[[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the religion, never specified any particular form of meditation, and thus each person is free to choose their own form.<ref name="bahai-meditation" /> However, he did state that Baháʼís should read a passage of the [[Baháʼí literature|Baháʼí writings]] twice a day, once in the morning, and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also encouraged people to reflect on one's actions and worth at the end of each day.<ref name="Smith-meditation"/> During the [[Nineteen Day Fast]], a period of the year during which Baháʼís adhere to a sunrise-to-sunset fast, they meditate and pray to reinvigorate their spiritual forces.<ref name="directives">{{Cite book |first=Shoghi |last=Effendi |author-link=Shoghi Effendi |year=1973 |title=Directives from The Guardian |publisher=Hawaii Baháʼí Publishing Trust |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/DG/dg-71.html#pg28 |page=28 |access-date=2011-07-01 |archive-date=2008-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706191445/http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/DG/dg-71.html#pg28 |url-status=live }}</ref>