Editing Holy Roman Empire (section)

== Institutions ==
The Holy Roman Empire was neither a centralized [[State (polity)|state]] nor a [[nation-state]]. Instead, it was divided into dozens – eventually hundreds – of individual entities governed by [[king]]s,{{Efn|name=prince}} [[duke]]s, [[count]]s, [[bishop]]s, [[abbot]]s, and other rulers, collectively known as [[Princes of the Holy Roman Empire|prince]]s. There were also some areas ruled directly by the Emperor.

From the [[High Middle Ages]] onwards, the Holy Roman Empire was marked by an uneasy coexistence with the princes of the local territories who were struggling to take [[power (sociology)|power]] away from it. To a greater extent than in other medieval kingdoms such as [[France in the Middle Ages|France]] and [[Kingdom of England|England]], the emperors were unable to gain much control over the lands that they formally owned. Instead, to secure their own position from the threat of being deposed, emperors were forced to grant more and more autonomy to local rulers, both nobles and bishops. This process began in the 11th century with the [[Investiture Controversy]] and was more or less concluded with the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. Several Emperors attempted to reverse this steady dilution of their authority but were thwarted both by the [[papacy]] and by the princes of the Empire.

=== Imperial estates ===
{{Main|Imperial Estate}}

The number of territories represented in the Imperial Diet was considerable, numbering about 300 at the time of the [[Peace of Westphalia]]. Many of these ''[[Kleinstaaterei|Kleinstaaten]]'' ("little states") covered no more than a few square miles, or included several non-contiguous pieces, so the Empire was often called a {{Langx|de|Flickenteppich|label=none}} ("[[Patchwork|patchwork carpet]]").
An entity was considered a {{Langx|de|Reichsstand|label=none}} (imperial estate) if, according to [[feudal law]], it had no authority above it except the Holy Roman Emperor himself. The imperial estates comprised:
* Territories ruled by a hereditary nobleman, such as a prince, archduke, duke, or count.
* Territories in which secular authority was held by an ecclesiastical dignitary, such as an archbishop, bishop, or abbot. Such an ecclesiastic or Churchman was a [[prince of the Church]]. In the common case of a [[prince-bishop]], this temporal territory (called a prince-bishopric) frequently overlapped with his often larger ecclesiastical [[diocese]], giving the bishop both civil and ecclesiastical powers. Examples are the prince-archbishoprics of [[Electorate of Cologne|Cologne]], [[Archbishopric of Trier|Trier]], and [[Archbishopric of Mainz|Mainz]].
* [[Free imperial city|Free imperial cities]] and [[Imperial village]]s, which were subject only to the jurisdiction of the emperor.
* The scattered estates of the free [[Imperial Knight]]s and [[Imperial Count]]s, immediate subject to the Emperor but unrepresented in the Imperial Diet.

A sum total of 1,500 Imperial estates has been reckoned.{{Sfn|Gumpelzhaimer|1796}} For a list of {{Langx|de|Reichsstände|label=none}} in 1792, see [[List of Imperial Diet participants (1792)]].

The most powerful lords of the later empire were the Austrian Habsburgs, who ruled {{Convert|240000|km2|abbr=on}} of land within the Empire in the first half of the 17th century, mostly in modern-day Austria and Czechia. At the same time the lands ruled by the electors of Saxony, Bavaria, and Brandenburg (prior to the acquisition of Prussia) were all close to {{Convert|40000|km2|abbr=on}}; the [[Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (later the Elector of Hanover) had a territory around the same size. These were the largest of the German realms. The Elector of the Palatinate had significantly less at {{Convert|20000|km2|abbr=on}}, and the ecclesiastical Electorates of Mainz, Cologne, and Trier were much smaller, with around {{Convert|7000|km2|abbr=on}}. Just larger than them, with roughly {{Convert|7000|–|10000|km2|abbr=on}}, were the Duchy of Württemberg, the Landgraviate of Hessen-Kassel, and the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. They were roughly matched in size by the prince-bishoprics of Salzburg and Münster. The majority of the other German territories, including the other prince-bishoprics, were under {{Convert|5000|km2|abbr=on}}, the smallest being those of the Imperial Knights; around 1790 the Knights consisted of 350 families ruling a total of only {{Convert|5000|km2|abbr=on}} collectively.{{Sfn|Whaley|2012b|p=188}} Imperial Italy was less fragmented politically, most of it {{Circa|1600}} being divided between Savoy (Savoy, Piedmont, Nice, Aosta), the Grand Duchy of Tuscany (Tuscany, bar Lucca), the Republic of Genoa (Liguria, Corisca), the duchies of Modena-Reggio and Parma-Piacenza (Emilia), and the Spanish Duchy of Milan (most of Lombardy), each with between half a million and one and a half million people.{{Sfn|Smith|1920|p=19}} The [[Low Countries]] were also more coherent than Germany, being entirely under the dominion of the [[Spanish Netherlands]] as part of the [[Burgundian Circle]], at least nominally.

In 1792, 21 families (8 electors and 13 princely families) held 81 percent of the Empire's territory, plus all electoral and 56 of the 100 princely votes. These 21 families held 25 territories (some families had cadet branches e.g. the Bavarian and Palatinate Wittelsbachs), by far the largest being Austria and Prussia. Another 16.4 percent of the Empire was split between 151 ecclesiastical and secular lords, generally lacking princely status, with the majority of that 16.4 percent being held by a tenth of the lords. The remaining 2.6 percent of the Empire was split between 51 disconnected imperial cities and 400 families of Imperial Knights.<ref>Wilson 2004, p. 413–414.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Territorial shares of the Reich after the Thirty Years' War{{Sfn|Wilson|2004|p=307}}{{Efn|Going by the given areas, Wilson's figures only include the German and Czech speaking parts of the Reich, thus excluding the French (e.g. [[Austrian Netherlands]], [[Franche-Comté]]) and Italian (e.g. [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscany]], [[Savoyard state|Piedmont-Savoy]]) parts. This is evident in how the territories of the electors and "other German rulers" adds up to the stated total of the Reich, and in how the Reich's area does not change from the given {{Convert|687338|km2|abbr=on}} total from 1648 to 1792, despite many French territories of the [[Burgundian Circle]] being lost in this time. The figures also exclude lands held outside of the Empire (including German ones), such as the Hohenzollern Prussian territories.}}
|-
! Ruler
! 1648
! 1714
! 1748
! 1792
|-
| Austrian Habsburgs
| 225,390&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (32.8%)
| 251,185&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (36.5%)
| 213,785&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (31.1%)
| 215,875&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (31.4%)
|-
| Brandenburg Hohenzollerns
| 70,469&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (10.2%)
| 77,702&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (11.3%)
| 124,122&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (18.1%)
| 131,822&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (19.2%)
|-
| Other secular prince-electors{{Efn|In 1648: Saxony, Bavaria, and the Electoral Palatinate. At later dates: Saxony, Bavaria, the Electoral Palatinate, and Hanover.}}
| 89,333&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (13.1%)
| 122,823&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (17.9%)
| 123,153&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (17.9%)
| 121,988&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (17.7%)
|-
| Other German rulers
| 302,146&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (44.0%)
| 235,628&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (34.3%)
| 226,278{{nbs}}km<sup>2</sup> (32.9%)
| 217,653{{nbs}}km<sup>2</sup> (31.7%)
|-
| '''Total'''
| 687,338
| 687,338
| 687,338
| 687,338
|}

=== King of the Romans ===
{{Main|King of the Romans}}
[[File:Weltliche Schatzkammer Wien (189)2.JPG|thumb|The [[Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire|crown of the Holy Roman Empire]] (latter half of the 10th century), now held in the [[Schatzkammer (Vienna)]]]]

A prospective Emperor first had to be elected [[King of the Romans]]. [[List of German monarchs|German kings]] had been elected since the 9th century; at that point they were chosen by the leaders of the five most important tribes (the [[Salian Franks]] of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]], [[Ripuarian Franks]] of [[Franconia]], [[Saxons]], [[Bavaria]]ns, and [[Swabia]]ns). In the Holy Roman Empire, the main dukes and bishops of the kingdom elected the King of the Romans.

The imperial throne was transferred by election, but Emperors often ensured their own sons were elected during their lifetimes, enabling them to keep the crown for their families. This only changed after the end of the Salian dynasty in the 12th century.

In 1356, Emperor [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] issued the [[Golden Bull of 1356|Golden Bull]], which limited the [[prince-elector|electors]] to seven: the [[King of Bohemia]], the [[Count Palatine of the Rhine]], the [[Duke of Saxony]], the [[Margrave of Brandenburg]], and the archbishops of [[Electorate of Cologne|Cologne]], [[Mainz]], and [[Trier]]. During the [[Thirty Years' War]], the [[Duke of Bavaria]] was given the right to vote as the eighth elector, and the [[Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (colloquially, Hanover) was granted a ninth electorate; additionally, the Napoleonic Wars resulted in several electorates being reallocated, but these new electors never voted before the Empire's dissolution. A candidate for election would be expected to offer concessions of land or money to the electors in order to secure their vote.

After being elected, the King of the Romans could theoretically claim the title of "Emperor" only after being crowned by the [[Pope]]. In many cases, this took several years while the King was held up by other tasks: frequently he first had to resolve conflicts in rebellious northern Italy or was quarreling with the Pope himself. Later Emperors dispensed with the papal coronation altogether, being content with the styling ''Emperor-Elect'': the last Emperor to be crowned by the Pope was [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in 1530.

The Emperor had to be male and of noble blood. No law required him to be a Catholic, but as the majority of the Electors adhered to this faith, no Protestant was ever elected. Whether and to what degree he had to be German was disputed among the Electors, contemporary experts in constitutional law, and the public. During the Middle Ages, some Kings and Emperors were not of German origin, but since the Renaissance, German heritage was regarded as vital for a candidate in order to be eligible for imperial office.{{Sfn|Hirschi|2005|pp=393–399}}

=== Imperial Diet ===
{{Main|Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)}}
[[File:Balduineum Wahl Heinrich VII.jpg|thumb|The Seven [[Prince-elector]]s (''{{lang|la|[[Codex Balduini Trevirorum]]}}'', {{circa|1340|lk=no}})]]

The Imperial Diet ({{lang|de|Reichstag}} or {{lang|de|Reichsversammlung}}) was not a legislative body as is understood today, as its members envisioned it to be more like a central forum, where it was more important to negotiate than to decide.{{Sfn|Malettke|2001|p=22}} The Diet was theoretically superior to the emperor himself. It was divided into three classes. The first class, the [[Council of Electors]], consisted of the electors, or the princes who could vote for King of the Romans. The second class, the [[Council of Princes]], consisted of the other princes. The Council of Princes was divided into two "benches", one for secular rulers and one for ecclesiastical ones. Higher-ranking princes had individual votes, while lower-ranking princes were grouped into "colleges" by geography. Each college had one vote.

The third class was the Council of Imperial Cities, which was divided into two colleges: [[Swabia]] and the [[Rhine]]. The Council of Imperial Cities was not fully equal with the others; it could not vote on several matters such as the admission of new territories. The representation of the Free Cities at the Diet had become common since the late Middle Ages. Nevertheless, their participation was formally acknowledged only as late as 1648 with the [[Peace of Westphalia]] ending the [[Thirty Years' War]].

=== Imperial Aulic Chancellery ===
The Imperial Aulic Chancellery ({{Lang|de|Reichshofkanzlei}}) was the main ''Aulic'' (Courtly) [[Chancery (medieval office)|Chancellery]] of the Holy Roman Empire. It was formed in 1559, by emperor [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], and existed until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. During that period, it was headed by the [[Imperial Archchancellor]] ({{Lang|de|Reichserzkanzler}}), a honorary post traditionally reserved for the [[Archbishops of Mainz]]. In practice, it was run by the Imperial Vicechancellor ({{Lang|de|Reichsvizekanzler}}), who was appointed among notable statesmen and administrators in imperial service.{{sfn|Gross|1933|p=}}

=== Imperial courts ===
{{Multiple image
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| total_width = 400
| image1 = Audienz Reichskammergericht.jpg
| caption1 = ''Reichskammergericht'', around 1750
| image2 = Reichshofrat.jpg
| caption2 = ''Reichshofrat'', around 1700
}}

The Empire also had two courts: the ''Reichshofrat'' (also known in English as the [[Aulic Council]]) at the court of the King/Emperor, and the ''[[Reichskammergericht]]'' (Imperial Chamber Court), established with the [[Imperial Reform]] of 1495 by Maximilian I. The Reichskammergericht and the Aulic Council were the two highest judicial instances in the Old Empire. The Imperial Chamber court's composition was determined by both the Holy Roman Emperor and the subject states of the Empire. Within this court, the Emperor appointed the chief justice, always a highborn aristocrat, several divisional chief judges, and some of the other puisne judges.<ref name=reichskammergericht.de/>

The Aulic Council held standing over many judicial disputes of state, both in concurrence with the Imperial Chamber court and exclusively on their own. The provinces Imperial Chamber Court extended to breaches of the public peace, cases of arbitrary distraint or imprisonment, pleas which concerned the treasury, violations of the Emperor's decrees or the laws passed by the Imperial Diet, disputes about property between [[Imperial Estate|immediate tenants of the Empire]] or the subjects of different rulers, and finally suits against immediate tenants of the Empire, with the exception of criminal charges and matters relating to imperial fiefs, which went to the [[Aulic Council]]. The Aulic Council even allowed the emperors the means to depose rulers who did not live up to expectations.{{Sfn|Brady|2009|p=429}}{{Sfn|Pavlac|Lott|2019|p=143}}

=== Imperial circles ===
[[File:Map of the Imperial Circles (1512)-en.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of the Empire showing division into Circles in 1512]]

As part of the Imperial Reform, six [[Imperial circle]]s were established in 1500; four more were established in 1512. These were regional groupings of most (though not all) of the various states of the Empire for the purposes of defense, imperial taxation, supervision of coining, peace-keeping functions, and public security. Each circle had its own parliament, known as a ''Kreistag'' ("Circle Diet"), and one or more directors, who coordinated the affairs of the circle. Not all imperial territories were included within the imperial circles, even after 1512; the [[Lands of the Bohemian Crown]] were excluded, as were [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Switzerland]], the imperial fiefs in northern Italy, the lands of the [[Imperial Knights]], and certain other small territories like the [[Lordship of Jever]].

=== Army ===
{{Main|Army of the Holy Roman Empire}}
{{Further|Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Emperor}}

The [[Army of the Holy Roman Empire]] ({{Langx|de|Reichsarmee}}, {{Langx|de|Reichsheer|label=none}} or {{Langx|de|Reichsarmatur|label=none}}; {{Langx|la|exercitus imperii}}) was created in 1422 and as a result of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] came to an end even before the Empire. It should not be confused with the [[Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Emperor|Imperial Army]] ({{Langx|de|Kaiserliche Armee|label=none}}) of the Emperor.

Despite appearances to the contrary, the Army of the Empire did not constitute a permanent [[standing army]] that was always at the ready to fight for the Empire. When there was danger, an Army of the Empire was mustered from among the elements constituting it,{{Sfn|Corvisier|Childs|1994|p=306}} in order to conduct an imperial military campaign or {{Langx|de|Reichsheerfahrt|label=none}}. In practice, the imperial troops often had local allegiances stronger than their loyalty to the Emperor.

=== Administrative centres ===
[[File:Vienna Austria Metropolis - Buda, vulgo Ofen, prima & regia Ungaria regni civitas.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Vienna, circa 1580 by [[Georg Braun]] and [[Frans Hogenberg]]]]

Throughout the first half of its history the Holy Roman Empire was reigned over by a [[Itinerant court|travelling court]]. Kings and emperors toured between the numerous [[Kaiserpfalz]]es (Imperial palaces), usually resided for several weeks or months and furnished local legal matters, law and administration. Most rulers maintained one or a number of favourites Imperial palace sites, where they would advance development and spent most of their time: Charlemagne ([[Aachen]] from 794), Otto I ([[Magdeburg]], from 955),<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tullner|first=Mathias|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cmPPBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|title=Geschichte des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt|date=2013|publisher=Springer-Verlag|isbn=978-3-3229-7346-7|page=27|language=de|access-date=6 February 2022}}</ref> Frederick II ([[Palermo]] 1220–1254), Wittelsbacher ([[Munich]] 1328–1347 and 1744–1745), Habsburger ([[Prague]] 1355–1437 and 1576–1611; and [[Vienna]] 1438–1576, 1611–1740 and 1745–1806).{{Sfn|Cantor|1993|pp=212–215}}{{Sfn|Ehlers|Flachenecker|Päffgen|Schieffer|2016|pp=31–}}<ref name=Thelocalgermancapitals/>

This practice eventually ended during the 16th century, as the emperors of the [[Habsburg dynasty]] chose [[Vienna]] and [[Prague]] and the [[Wittelsbach dynasty|Wittelsbach]] rulers chose [[Munich]] as their permanent residences (Maximilian I's "true home" was still "the stirrup, the overnight rest and the saddle", although Innsbruck was probably his most important base; Charles V was also a nomadic emperor).{{Sfn|Pavlac|Lott|2019|p=27}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Benecke|first=Gerhard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP25|title=Maximilian I (1459–1519): An Analytical Biography|date= 2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-0000-0840-1|page=25|language=en|access-date=5 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Grant|first=Neil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=orOgAAAAMAAJ|title=Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|date=1970|publisher=F. Watts|isbn=978-0-5310-0937-6|page=74|language=en|access-date=5 February 2022}}</ref> Vienna became Imperial capital during the 1550s under [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] (reigned 1556–1564). Except for a period under [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf II]] (reigned 1570–1612) who moved to Prague, Vienna kept its primacy under his successors.{{Sfn|Pavlac|Lott|2019|p=27}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Patrouch|first=Joseph F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4j5EoSdYyccC&pg=PA11|title=Queen's Apprentice: Archduchess Elizabeth, Empress María, the Habsburgs, and the Holy Roman Empire, 1554–1569|date=2010|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9-0041-8030-7|page=11|language=en|access-date=5 February 2022}}</ref> Before that, certain sites served only as the individual residence for a particular sovereign. A number of cities held official status, where the [[Imperial Estates]] would summon at [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]]s, the [[deliberative assembly]] of the empire.{{Sfn|Gagliardo|1980|pp=22–23}}{{Sfn|Brockmann|2006|p=15}}

The [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]] (''Reichstag'') resided variously in [[Paderborn]], [[Bad Lippspringe]], [[Ingelheim am Rhein]], [[Diedenhofen]] (now [[Thionville]]), [[Aachen]], [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], [[Forchheim]], [[Trebur]], [[Fritzlar]], [[Ravenna]], [[Quedlinburg]], [[Dortmund]], [[Verona]], [[Minden]], [[Mainz]], [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Merseburg]], [[Goslar]], [[Würzburg]], [[Bamberg]], [[Schwäbisch Hall]], [[Augsburg]], [[Nuremberg]], [[Quierzy-sur-Oise]], [[Speyer]], [[Gelnhausen]], [[Erfurt]], [[Cheb|Eger]] (now [[Cheb]]), [[Esslingen am Neckar|Esslingen]], [[Lindau]], [[Freiburg]], [[Cologne]], [[Konstanz]] and [[Trier]] before it was moved permanently to [[Regensburg]].{{Sfn|Schindling|1986|p=64}}

Until the 15th century the elected emperor was [[Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor|crowned]] and anointed by the Pope in [[Rome]], among some exceptions in [[Ravenna]], [[Bologna]] and [[Reims]]. Since 1508 (emperor Maximilian I) [[Imperial election]]s took place in Frankfurt am Main, [[Augsburg]], [[Rhens]], [[Cologne]] or [[Regensburg]].{{Sfn|Erbe|2000|pp=19–30}}{{Sfn|Angermeier|1984}}

In December 1497 the [[Aulic Council]] (''Reichshofrat'') was established in [[Vienna]].{{Sfn|Hochedlinger|Mata|Winkelbauer|2019}}

In 1495 the ''[[Reichskammergericht]]'' was established, which variously resided in [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], [[Augsburg]], [[Nuremberg]], [[Regensburg]], [[Speyer]] and [[Esslingen am Neckar|Esslingen]] before it was moved permanently to [[Wetzlar]].{{Sfn|Barker|1911|p=341}}

=== Foreign relations ===
The Habsburg royal family had its own diplomats to represent its interests. The larger principalities in the Holy Roman Empire, beginning around 1648, also did the same. The Holy Roman Empire did not have its own dedicated ministry of foreign affairs and therefore the [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]] had no control over these diplomats; occasionally the Diet criticised them.{{Sfn|Wilson|1999|p=70}}<!--Note the page numbers 70 and 69 came from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holy_Roman_Empire&diff=prev&oldid=905420229&diffmode=source which shows 0230344593}}, 9780230344594 - it is possible the different editions (which have different ISBNs) may have the content in different locations. -->

When [[Regensburg]] served as the site of the Diet, France and, in the late 1700s, Russia, had diplomatic representatives there.{{Sfn|Wilson|1999|p=70}} The kings of Denmark, Great Britain, and Sweden had land holdings in Germany and so had representation in the Diet itself.{{Sfn|Wilson|1999|p=69}} The Netherlands also had envoys in Regensburg. Regensburg was the place where envoys met as it was where representatives of the Diet could be reached.{{Sfn|Härter|2011|pp=122–123, 132}}<!--Note that page 122 discusses which countries sent envoys, and page 132 discusses why Regensburg was chosen-->