Editing Germanic peoples (section)

==Economy and material culture==
===Agriculture and population density===
Unlike agriculture in the Roman provinces, which was organized around the large farms known as [[villa rustica|villae rusticae]], Germanic agriculture was organized around villages. When Germanic peoples expanded into northern Gaul in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, they brought this village-based agriculture with them, which increased the agricultural productivity of the land; [[Heiko Steuer]] suggests this means that Germania was more agriculturally productive than is generally assumed.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=409}} Villages were not distant from each other but often within sight, revealing a fairly high population density, and contrary to the assertions of Roman sources, only about 30% of Germania was covered in forest, about the same percentage as today.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=1273}}

Based on pollen samples and the finds of seeds and plant remains, the chief grains cultivated in Germania were barley, oats, and wheat (both [[Einkorn]] and [[emmer]]), while the most common vegetables were beans and peas. Flax was also grown.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=79}} Agriculture in Germania relied heavily on animal husbandry, primarily the raising of cattle, which were smaller than their Roman counterparts{{sfn|Todd|1999|pp=76–77}} Both cultivation and animal husbandry methods improved with time, with examples being the introduction of rye, which grew better in Germania, and the introduction of the [[three-field system]].{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=410}}

===Crafts===
It is unclear if there was a special class of craftsmen in Germania, however archaeological finds of tools are frequent.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|pp=427–428}} Many everyday items such as dishes were made out of wood, and archaeology has found the remains of wooden well construction.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=248}} The 4th-century CE Nydam and Illerup ships show highly developed knowledge of ship construction, while elite graves have revealed wooden furniture with complex [[Woodworking joints|joinery]].{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=429}} Products made from ceramics included cooking, drinking, and storage, vessels, as well as lamps. While originally formed by hand, the period around 1 CE saw the introduction of the [[potter's wheel]].{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=435}} Some of the ceramics produced on potter's wheels seem to have been done in direct imitation of Roman wares,{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=130}} and may have been produced by Romans in Germania or by ''Germani'' who had learned Roman techniques while serving in the Roman army.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=507}} The shape and decoration of Germanic ceramics vary by region and archaeologists have traditionally used these variations to determine larger cultural areas.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=434}} Many ceramics were probably produced locally in hearths, but large pottery kilns have also been discovered, and it seems clear that there were areas of specialized production.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=130}}

===Metalworking===
[[File:Viking gold necklace2.jpg|thumb| A 5th-century CE gold collar from Ålleberg, Sweden. It displays Germanic [[filigree]] work.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=123}}]]
Despite the claims of Roman writers such as Tacitus that the ''Germani'' had little iron and lacked expertise in working it, deposits of iron were commonly found in Germania and Germanic smiths were skillful metalworkers.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=127}} Smithies are known from multiple settlements, and smiths were often buried with their tools.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=469}} An iron mine discovered at Rudki, in the [[Łysogóry]] mountains of modern central Poland, operated from the 1st to the 4th centuries CE and included a substantial smelting workshop; similar facilities have been found in Bohemia.{{sfn|Todd|1999|pp=128–129}} The remains of large smelting operations have been discovered by [[Ribe]] in Jutland (4th to 6th century CE),{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=444}} as well as at Glienick in northern Germany and at [[Heeten]] in the Netherlands (both 4th century CE).{{sfn|Steuer|2021|pp=448–449}} Germanic smelting furnaces may have produced metal that was as high-quality as that produced by the Romans.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=129}} In addition to large-scale production, nearly every individual settlement seems to have produced some iron for local use.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=444}} Iron was used for agricultural tools, tools for various crafts, and for weapons.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=452}}

[[Lead]] was needed in order to make molds and for the production of jewelry, however it is unclear if the ''Germani'' were able to produce lead. While lead mining is known from within the [[Siegerland]] across the Rhine from the Roman Empire, it is sometimes theorized that this was the work of Roman miners.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|pp=455–456}} Another mine within Germania was near modern [[Soest, Germany|Soest]], where again it is theorized that lead was exported to Rome.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|pp=459–460}} The neighboring Roman provinces of [[Germania superior]] and [[Germania inferior]] produced a great deal of lead, which has been found stamped as {{lang|la|plumbum Germanicum}} ("Germanic lead") in Roman shipwrecks.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|pp=455–457}}

Deposits of gold are not found naturally within Germania and had to either be imported{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=120}} or could be found having naturally washed down rivers.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|pp=510–511}} The earliest known gold objects made by Germanic craftsmen are mostly small ornaments dating from the later 1st century CE.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=120}} Silver working likewise dates from the first century CE, and silver often served as a decorative element with other metals.{{sfn|Todd|1999|pp=126–127}} From the 2nd century onward, increasingly complex gold jewelry was made, often inlaid with precious stones and in a [[polychrome style]].{{sfn|Todd|1999|pp=122–123}} Inspired by Roman metalwork, Germanic craftsmen also began working with gold and silver-gilt foils on belt buckles, jewelry, and weapons.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=123}} Pure gold objects produced in the late Roman period included [[torc]]s with snakeheads, often displaying [[filigree]] and [[cloisonné]] work, techniques that dominated throughout Germanic Europe.{{sfn|Todd|1999|pp=123–124}}

===Clothing and textiles===
[[File:Thorsberg Trousers.jpg|thumb|left|A pair of trousers with attached stockings found in the [[Thorsberg moor]] (3rd century CE){{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=431}}]]
Clothing does not generally preserve well archaeologically. Early Germanic clothing is shown on some Roman stone monuments such as [[Trajan's Column]] and the [[Column of Marcus Aurelius]], and is occasionally discovered in finds from in [[moorland|moors]],{{sfn|Steuer|2021|pp=430–431}} mostly from Scandinavia.{{sfn|Banck-Burgess|Müller|Hägg|2010|p=1214}} Frequent finds include long trousers, sometimes including connected stockings, shirt-like gowns ({{lang|de|Kittel}}) with long sleeves, large pieces of cloth, and capes with fur on the inside.{{sfn|Banck-Burgess|Müller|Hägg|2010|pp=1214–1215}} All of these are thought to be male clothing, while finds of tubular garments are thought to be female clothing. These would have reached to the ankles and would likely have been held in place by brooches at the height of the shoulders, as shown on Roman monuments.{{sfn|Banck-Burgess|Müller|Hägg|2010|p=1215}} On Roman depictions, the dress was gathered below the breast or at the waist, and there are frequently no sleeves. Sometimes a blouse or skirt is depicted below the dress, along with a neckerchief around the throat.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=131}} By the middle of the 5th century CE, both men and women among the continental Germanic peoples came to wear a Roman-style [[tunic]] as their most important piece of clothing. This was secured at the waist and likely adopted due to intensive contact with the Roman world.{{sfn|Banck-Burgess|Müller|Hägg|2010|pp=1221–1222}} The Romans typically depict Germanic men and women as bareheaded, although some head-coverings have been found. Although Tacitus mentions an undergarment made of linen, no examples of these have been found.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=131}}

Surviving examples indicate that Germanic textiles were of high quality and mostly made of [[flax]] and [[wool]].{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=431}} Roman depictions show the Germani wearing materials that were only lightly worked.{{sfn|Banck-Burgess|Müller|Hägg|2010|p=1216}} Surviving examples indicate that a variety of weaving techniques were used.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=131}} Leather was used for shoes, belts, and other gear.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|pp=433–434}} [[Spindle (textiles)|Spindles]], sometimes made of glass or amber, and the weights from [[loom]]s and [[distaff]]s are frequently found in Germanic settlements.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=431}}

===Trade===
[[File:Athena-Schale Hildesheimer Silberfund.jpg|thumb|280px|The Minerva Bowl, part of the [[Hildesheim Treasure]], likely a Roman diplomatic gift.{{sfn|Murdoch|2004|p=64}} The treasure may date from the reign of [[Nero]] (37–68 CE) or the early [[Flavian dynasty]] (69–96 CE).{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=92}}]]
Archaeology shows that from at least the turn of the 3rd century CE larger regional settlements in Germania existed that were not exclusively involved in an agrarian economy, and that the main settlements were connected by paved roads. The entirety of Germania was within a system of long-distance trade.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|pp=1274–1275}} Migration-period seaborne trade is suggested by [[Gudme]] on the Danish island of [[Funen]] and other harbors on the Baltic.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=98}}

Roman trade with Germania is poorly documented.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=88}} Roman merchants crossing the Alps for Germania are recorded already by Caesar in the 1st century BCE.{{sfn|Murdoch|2004|p=64}} During the imperial period, most trade probably took place in trading posts in Germania or at major Roman bases.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=89}} The most well-known Germanic export to the Roman Empire was amber, with a trade centered on the Baltic coast.{{sfn|Murdoch|2004|p=65}} Economically, however, amber is likely to have been fairly unimportant.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=95}} The use of Germanic loanwords in surviving Latin texts suggests that besides amber ({{lang|la|glaesum}}), the Romans also imported the feathers of Germanic geese ({{lang|la|ganta}}) and hair dye ({{lang|la|sapo}}). Germanic slaves were also a major commodity.{{sfn|Murdoch|2004|p=66}} Archaeological discoveries indicate that lead was exported from Germania as well, perhaps mined in Roman-Germanic "joint ventures".{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=461}}

Products imported from Rome are found archaeologically throughout the Germanic sphere and include vessels of bronze and silver, glassware, pottery, brooches; other products such as textiles and foodstuffs may have been just as important.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=87}} Rather than mine and smelt [[non-ferrous metal]]s themselves, Germanic smiths seem to have often preferred to melt down finished metal objects from Rome, which were imported in large numbers, including coins, metal vessels, and metal statues.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|pp=463–469}} Tacitus mentions in ''Germania'' chapter 23 that the Germani living along the Rhine bought wine, and Roman wine has been found in Denmark and northern Poland.{{sfn|Murdoch|2004|p=64}} Finds of Roman silver coinage and weapons might have been war booty or the result of trade, while high quality silver items may have been diplomatic gifts.{{sfn|Todd|1999|pp=87–88}} Roman coinage may have acted as a form of currency as well.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=101}}