Editing Spirituality (section)

==Scientific research==

===Health and well-being===
{{Main|Religion and health}}

Various studies (most  originating from North America) have reported a positive [[correlation]] between spirituality and mental well-being in both healthy people and those encountering a range of physical illnesses or psychological disorders.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Joshanloo|first1=Mohsen|title=Investigation of the Contribution of Spirituality and Religiousness to Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-Being in Iranian Young Adults|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|date=4 December 2010|volume=12|issue=6|pages=915–30|doi=10.1007/s10902-010-9236-4|s2cid=143848163}}</ref><ref>Fehring, R.J., Miller, J.F., Shaw, C. (1997). Spiritual well-being, religiosity, hope, depression, and other mood states in elderly people coping with cancer 24. Oncology Nursing Forum. pp. 663–71.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1= Nelson | first1= C.J. | last2= Rosenfeld | first2= B. | last3= Breitbart | first3= W. | last4= Galietta | first4= M. | year= 2002 | title= Spirituality, religion, and depression in the terminally ill | journal= Psychosomatics | volume= 43 | issue= 3| pages= 213–20 | doi=10.1176/appi.psy.43.3.213 | pmid= 12075036 | doi-access= free }}</ref>{{sfn|Koenig|2008}} Although spiritual individuals tend to be optimistic,{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2019}} report greater social support,<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Salsman | first1= J.M. | last2= Brown | first2= T.L. | last3= Brechting | first3= E.H. | last4= Carlson | first4= C.R. | year= 2005 | title= The link between religion and spirituality and psychological adjustment: The mediating role of optimism and social support | journal= Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume= 31 | issue= 4| pages= 522–35 | doi=10.1177/0146167204271563| pmid= 15743986 | s2cid= 34780785 }}</ref> and experience higher intrinsic [[Meaning of life|meaning in life]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Park | first1= C | year= 2005 | title= Religion as a meaning-making framework in coping with life stress | journal= Journal of Social Issues | volume= 61 | issue= 4| pages= 707–29 | doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00428.x}}</ref> strength, and [[inner peace]],<ref>Hill, P.C. (1995). Affect theory and religious experience. In R.W. Hood, Jr (Ed.) Handbook of religious experience (pp.) Birmingham AL, Religious Education Press.</ref> whether the correlation represents a causal link remains contentious. Both supporters and opponents of this claim agree that past statistical findings are difficult to interpret, in large part because of the ongoing disagreement over how spirituality should be defined and measured.{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2013}} There is also evidence that an agreeable/positive temperament and/or a tendency toward sociability (which all correlate with spirituality) might actually be the key psychological features that predispose people to subsequently adopt a spiritual orientation and that these characteristics, not spiritually ''per se'', add to well-being. There is also some suggestion that the benefits associated with spirituality and religiosity might arise from being a member of a close-knit community. Social bonds available via secular sources (i.e.,  not unique to spirituality or faith-based groups) might just as effectively raise well-being. In sum, spirituality may not be the "active ingredient" (i.e., past association with psychological well-being measures might reflect a reverse causation or effects from other variables that correlate with spirituality),{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2011}}{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2013a}}<ref>Emmons, R.A. (2005). Emotion and religion. In [[Raymound Paloutzian|R.F. Paloutzian]], & C.L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 235–52). New York: Guilford Press.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1= Saroglou | first1= V. | last2= Buxant | first2= C. | last3= Tilquin | first3= J. | year= 2008 | title= Positive emotions as leading to religion and spirituality | journal= Journal of Positive Psychology | volume= 3 | issue= 3| pages= 165–73 | doi=10.1080/17439760801998737| s2cid= 145374566 }}</ref>{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2010}}<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Saroglou | first1= V | year= 2010 | title= Religiousness as a cultural adaptation of basic traits: A five-factor model perspective | journal= Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume= 14 | issue= 1| pages= 108–25 | doi=10.1177/1088868309352322| pmid= 20023209 | s2cid= 206682563 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1= Saroglou | first1= V | year= 2002 | title= Religion and the five factors of personality: A meta-analytic review | journal= Personality and Individual Differences | volume= 32 | issue= 1| pages= 15–25 | doi=10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00233-6}}</ref> and that the effects of agreeableness, conscientiousness, or virtue&nbsp;– personality traits common in many non-spiritual people yet known to be slightly more common among the spiritual&nbsp;– may better account for spirituality's apparent correlation with mental health and social support.{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2011}}<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ibcsr.org/index.php/institute-research-portals/spirituality-and-health-causation-project/554-does-spirituality-help-well-being-or-do-we-just-need-to-be-good-to-each-other| title = independent review| access-date = 2014-07-14| archive-date = 2014-07-14| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140714123547/http://www.ibcsr.org/index.php/institute-research-portals/spirituality-and-health-causation-project/554-does-spirituality-help-well-being-or-do-we-just-need-to-be-good-to-each-other| url-status = live}}</ref>{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2017}}<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Gebauer | first1= J. | last2= Bleidorn | first2= W. | last3= Gosling | first3= S. | last4= Rentfrow | first4= P. | last5= Lamb | first5= M. | last6= Potter | first6= J. | year= 2014 | title= Cross-cultural variations in Big Five relationships with religiosity: A sociocultural motives perspective | journal= Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume= 107 | issue= 6 | pages= 1064–91 | doi= 10.1037/a0037683 | pmid= 25180757 | url= https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/247004 | access-date= 2019-12-09 | archive-date= 2020-07-14 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200714174030/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/247004 | url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Löckenhoff |first1=C.E. |author1-link= Corinna Löckenhoff |last2=Ironson |first2=G.H. |last3=O'Cleirigh |first3=C. |last4=Costa |first4=P.T. |year=2009 |title=Five-Factor Model Personality Traits, Spirituality/Religiousness, and Mental Health Among People Living With HIV |journal=Journal of Personality |volume=77 |issue=5| pages=1411–1436 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00587.x |pmc=2739880 |pmid=19686457}}</ref>

===Intercessionary prayer===
Masters and Spielmans<ref>{{Cite journal | doi= 10.1007/s10865-007-9106-7 | last1= Masters | first1= K.S. | last2= Spielmans | first2= G.I | year= 2007 | title= Prayer and health: review, meta-analysis, and research agenda | journal= Journal of Behavioral Medicine | volume= 30 | issue= 4| pages= 329–38 | pmid= 17487575 | citeseerx= 10.1.1.462.3003 | s2cid= 3621477 }}</ref> conducted a [[meta-analysis]] of all the available and reputable research examining the effects of distant [[Intercession|intercessory]] prayer.  They found no discernible health effects from being prayed for by others. In fact, one large and scientifically rigorous study by [[Herbert Benson]] and colleagues<ref>{{Cite journal | doi= 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.05.028 | pmid= 16569567 | last1= Benson |display-authors=etal | year= 2006 | title= Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: A multicenter randomized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving intercessory prayer. | journal= American Heart Journal | volume= 151 | issue= 4 | pages= 934–42 }}</ref> revealed that intercessory prayer had no effect on recovery from cardiac arrest, but patients told people were praying for them actually had an ''increased risk'' of medical complications.

====Spiritual care in health care professions====
{{Main|Spiritual care in health care professions}}

In the health-care professions there is growing{{quantify|date=July 2017}} interest in "spiritual care", to complement the medical-technical approaches and to improve the outcomes of medical treatments.{{sfn|Koenig|King|Carson|2012}}{{sfn|Puchalski|Vitillo|Hull|Relle|2014}} Puchalski et al. argue for "[[compassion]]ate systems of care" in a spiritual context.

===Spiritual experiences===
[[Neuroscientist]]s have examined brain functioning during reported spiritual experiences<ref>Alper, Matthew, ''The "God" Part of the Brain: A Scientific Interpretation of Human Spirituality and God'' Sourcebooks, Inc., 2008 {{ISBN|1-4022-1452-9|978-1-4022-1452-3}}</ref><ref>Talan, Jamie ''Science Probes Spirituality'' February/March 2006: Scientific American Mind. [http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=FE043ADA-2B35-221B-65500BA1D8EBA2F7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231010456/http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=FE043ADA-2B35-221B-65500BA1D8EBA2F7|date=2010-12-31}}</ref> finding that certain neurotransmitters and specific areas of the brain are involved.<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Kurup | first1= R.K. | last2= Kurup | first2= P.A. | year= 2003 | title= Hypothalamic digoxin, hemispheric chemical digoxin, and spirituality | journal= International Journal of Neuroscience | volume= 113 | issue= 3| pages= 383–93 | doi=10.1080/00207450390162155| pmid= 12803140 | s2cid= 23851931 }}</ref><ref>Necini, P., & Grant, K.A. (2010). Psychobiology of drug-induced religious experience: From the brain 'locus of religion' to cognitive unbinding. Substance Use & Misuse, 45(13), 2130–51.</ref><ref>Joseph, R. (2001). The limbic system and the soul: Evolution and the neuroanatomy of religious experience, Zygon, 36(1), 105–36.</ref><ref>D'Aquili, E.G., & Newberg, A.B. (1998) The neuropsychological basis of religions, or Why God won't go away. Zygon, 33(2), 187–201</ref>  Moreover, experimenters have also successfully induced spiritual experiences in individuals by administering [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive agents]] known to elicit euphoria and perceptual distortions.<ref>Griffiths, R.R., Richards, W.A., McCann, U., Jesse, R. (2006). Psilocybin can occasion mystical type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance Psychopharmacology, 187:268–83</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1= Drevets | first1= W.C. | last2= Gautier | first2= C. | last3= Price | first3= J.C. | last4= Kupfer | first4= D.J. | last5= Kinahan | first5= P.E. | last6= Grace | first6= A.A. | last7= Price | first7= J.L. | last8= Mathis | first8= C.A. | year= 2001 | title= Amphetamine-induced dopamine release in human ventral striatum correlates with euphoria | journal= Biological Psychiatry | volume= 49 | issue= 2| pages= 81–96 | doi=10.1016/s0006-3223(00)01038-6| pmid= 11164755 | s2cid= 16090732 }}</ref> Conversely, religiosity and spirituality can also be ''dampened'' by electromagnetic stimulation of the brain.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.016|pmid=25697502|title=Excitatory stimulation of the right inferior parietal cortex lessens implicit religiousness/Spirituality |journal=Neuropsychologia|volume=70 |pages=71–79|year=2015|last1=Crescentini|first1=Cristiano|last2=Di Bucchianico|first2=Marilena|last3=Fabbro |first3=Franco|last4=Urgesi|first4=Cosimo|s2cid=20251662}}</ref> These results have motivated some leading theorists to speculate that spirituality may be a benign subtype of [[psychosis]]{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2013a}}<ref group=web>{{cite web |author=Tom Rees |date=June 5, 2013 |title=Does hallucinations + happiness = spirituality? |website=Epiphenom |url=http://www.patheos.com/blogs/epiphenom/2013/06/does-hallucinations-happiness.html |access-date=June 12, 2015 |archive-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613233257/http://www.patheos.com/blogs/epiphenom/2013/06/does-hallucinations-happiness.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Claridge, G. (2010) Spiritual experience: Healthy psychoticism? In Clarke, I. (Ed), Psychosis and spirituality: Consolidating the new paradigm (pp. 75–86). Chester: Wiley-Blackwell.</ref><ref name="Cottam, S. 2011">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/13546805.2010.548543|pmid=21390926 |title=Does religious belief enable positive interpretation of auditory hallucinations? A comparison of religious voice hearers with and without psychosis|journal=Cognitive Neuropsychiatry|volume=16|issue=5 |pages=403–421|year=2011|last1=Cottam|first1=S.|last2=Paul |first2=S. N.|last3=Doughty|first3=O. J. |last4=Carpenter|first4=L.|last5=Al-Mousawi|first5=A.|last6=Karvounis|first6=S.|last7=Done|first7=D. J.|s2cid=21362892}}</ref><ref name="Davies, M.F. 2001">{{cite journal | last1= Davies | first1= M.F. | last2= Griffin | first2= M. | last3= Vice | first3= S. | year= 2001 | title= Affective reactions to auditory hallucinations in psychotic, evangelical and control groups | url= http://research.gold.ac.uk/63/1/BJCP_2001.pdf | journal= British Journal of Clinical Psychology | volume= 40 | issue= 4 | pages= 361–70 | doi= 10.1348/014466501163850 | pmid= 11760613 | access-date= 2018-12-17 | archive-date= 2018-12-18 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181218011108/http://research.gold.ac.uk/63/1/BJCP_2001.pdf | url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1= Thalbourne | first1= M.A. | last2= Delin | first2= P.S. | year= 1994 | title= A common thread underlying belief in the paranormal, creative personality, mystical experience and psychopathology | journal= Journal of Parapsychology | volume= 58 | pages= 3–38 }}</ref> – benign in the sense that the same aberrant sensory perceptions that those suffering clinical psychoses evaluate as distressingly incongruent and inexplicable are instead interpreted by spiritual individuals as positive (personal and meaningful transcendent experiences).<ref name="Cottam, S. 2011"/><ref name="Davies, M.F. 2001"/>

===Measurement===
Considerable debate persists about&nbsp;– among other factors&nbsp;– spirituality's relation to religion, the number and content of its dimensions, its relation to concepts of well-being, and its universality.<ref name="MAC">{{cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=Douglas A. |last2=Friedman |first2=Harris L. |last3=Brewczynski |first3=Jacek |last4=Holland |first4=Daniel |last5=Salagame |first5=Kiran Kumar K. |last6=Mohan |first6=K. Krishna |last7=Gubrij |first7=Zuzana Ondriasova |last8=Cheong |first8=Hye Wook |last9=Sueur |first9=Cédric |title=Spirituality as a Scientific Construct: Testing Its Universality across Cultures and Languages |journal=PLOS ONE |date=3 March 2015 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=e0117701 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0117701|pmid=25734921 |pmc=4348483 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1017701M |doi-access=free }}</ref> A number of research groups have developed instruments which attempt to measure spirituality quantitatively, including unidimensional (e.g. the Character Strength Inventory—Spirituality <ref>Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J.B. (2014). "Measuring Spirituality as Personal Belief in Supernatural Forces: Is the Character Strength Inventory-Spirituality subscale a brief, reliable and valid measure?". Implicit Religion. 17 (2): 211–222. doi:10.1558/imre.v17i2.211.</ref> and the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale) and multi-dimensional (e.g. Spiritual Transcendence Scale (STS) and the Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality (BMMRS)) scales. MacDonald et al. gave an "Expressions of Spirituality Inventory" (ESI-R) measuring five dimensions of spirituality to over 4000 persons across eight countries. The study results and interpretation highlighted the complexity and challenges of measurement of spirituality cross-culturally.<ref name="MAC"/>