Editing Sigmund Freud (section)

===Feminism===
[[File:Betty Friedan 1960.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Shoulder high portrait of a forty-year-old woman with short brownish hair wearing a buttoned sweater|[[Betty Friedan]] criticizes Freud's view of women in her 1963 book ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]''.<ref name=Friedan/>]]
The decline in Freud's reputation has been attributed partly to the revival of [[feminism]].<ref>P. Robinson, ''Freud and His Critics'', 1993, pp. 1–2.</ref> [[Simone de Beauvoir]] criticizes psychoanalysis from an [[Existentialism|existentialist]] standpoint in ''[[The Second Sex]]'' (1949), arguing that Freud saw an "original superiority" in the male that is in reality socially induced.<ref name=Mitchell/> [[Betty Friedan]] criticizes Freud and what she considered his Victorian view of women in ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' (1963).<ref name=Friedan>Friedan, Betty. ''The Feminine Mystique''. W.W. Norton, 1963, pp. 166–94</ref> Freud's concept of [[penis envy]] was attacked by [[Kate Millett]], who in ''[[Sexual Politics]]'' (1970) accused him of confusion and oversights.<ref>Millett, Kate. ''Sexual Politics''. University of Chicago Press, 2000, pp. 176–203</ref> In 1968, [[Anne Koedt]] wrote in her essay ''[[The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm]]:'' <blockquote>It was Freud's feelings about women's secondary and inferior relationship to men that formed the basis for his theories on female sexuality. Once having laid down the law about the nature of our sexuality, Freud not so strangely discovered a tremendous problem of [[frigidity]] in women. His recommended cure for a frigid woman was psychiatric care. She was suffering from failure to mentally adjust to her 'natural' role as a woman.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Koedt|first=Anne|date=1970|title=The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm by Anne Koedt|url=http://www.uic.edu/orgs/cwluherstory/CWLUArchive/vaginalmyth.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106211856/http://www.uic.edu/orgs/cwluherstory/CWLUArchive/vaginalmyth.html|archive-date=6 January 2013|access-date=29 December 2020}}</ref></blockquote> [[Naomi Weisstein]] writes that Freud and his followers erroneously thought his "years of intensive clinical experience" added up to scientific rigor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Weisstein, Naomi|editor=Schneir, Miriam|title=Feminism in Our Time|publisher=Vintage|year=1994|chapter=Kinder, Küche, Kirche as Scientific Law: Psychology Constructs the Female|isbn=978-0-679-74508-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/feminisminourtim0000unse/page/217 217]|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/feminisminourtim0000unse/page/217}}</ref>

Freud is also criticized by [[Shulamith Firestone]] and [[Eva Figes]]. In ''[[The Dialectic of Sex]]'' (1970), Firestone argues that Freud was a "poet" who produced metaphors rather than literal truths; in her view, Freud, like feminists, recognized that sexuality was the crucial problem of modern life, but ignored the social context. Firestone interprets Freud's "metaphors" in terms of the facts of power within the family. Figes tries in ''Patriarchal Attitudes'' (1970) to place Freud within a "[[history of ideas]]". [[Juliet Mitchell]] defends Freud against his feminist critics in ''Psychoanalysis and Feminism'' (1974), accusing them of misreading him and misunderstanding the implications of psychoanalytic theory for feminism. Mitchell helped introduce English-speaking feminists to Lacan.<ref name=Mitchell>Mitchell, Juliet. ''Psychoanalysis and Feminism: A Radical Reassessment of Freudian Psychoanalysis''. London: Penguin Books, 2000, pp. xxix, 303–56</ref> Mitchell is criticized by [[Jane Gallop]] in ''The Daughter's Seduction'' (1982). Gallop compliments Mitchell for her criticism of feminist discussions of Freud but finds her treatment of Lacanian theory lacking.<ref>Gallop, Jane. ''The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1992</ref>

Some French feminists, among them [[Julia Kristeva]] and [[Luce Irigaray]], have been influenced by Freud as interpreted by Lacan.<ref>Gallop, Jane & Burke, Carolyn, in Eisenstein, Hester & Jardine, Alice (eds.). ''The Future of Difference''. New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1987, pp. 106–08</ref><ref>Whitford, Margaret. ''Luce Irigaray: Philosophy in the Feminine''. London and New York: Routledge, 1991, pp. 31–32</ref>

Psychologist [[Carol Gilligan]] writes that "The penchant of developmental theorists to project a masculine image, and one that appears frightening to women, goes back at least to Freud." She sees Freud's criticism of women's sense of justice reappearing in the work of [[Jean Piaget]] and [[Lawrence Kohlberg]]. Gilligan notes that [[Nancy Chodorow]], in contrast to Freud, attributes sexual difference not to anatomy but to the fact that male and female children have different early social environments. Chodorow, writing against the masculine bias of psychoanalysis, "replaces Freud's negative and derivative description of female psychology with a positive and direct account of her own."<ref>Gilligan, Carol. ''In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development''. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1982, pp. 6–8, 18</ref>

In her analysis of Freud's work on religion in relation to gender, [[Judith Van Herik]] noted that Freud paired femininity and the concept of weakness with Christianity and wish fulfillment while associating masculinity and renunciation with Judaism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Soble |first=Alan |date=1987 |title=Review of Freud on Femininity and Faith |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40036410 |journal=International Journal for Philosophy of Religion |volume=22 |issue=1/2 |pages=99–102 |jstor=40036410 |issn=0020-7047}}</ref>

[[Toril Moi]] has developed a feminist perspective on psychoanalysis proposing that it is a discourse that "attempts to understand the psychic consequences of three universal traumas: the fact that there are others, the fact of sexual difference, and the fact of death".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Moi | first1 = Toril | author-link = Toril Moi | year = 2004 | title = From Femininity to Finitude: Freud, Lacan, and Feminism, again | url = http://www.torilmoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/MOI_FEMININITY.PDF | journal = Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | page = 871 | doi = 10.1086/380630 | s2cid = 146342669 | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160623200809/http://www.torilmoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/MOI_FEMININITY.PDF | archive-date = 23 June 2016}}</ref> She replaces Freud's term of castration with [[Stanley Cavell|Stanley Cavell's]] concept of "victimization" which is a more universal term that applies equally to both sexes.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Claim of Reason: Wittgenstein, Skepticism, Morality and Tragedy|url = https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave|url-access = limited|last = Cavell|first = Stanley| author-link=Stanley Cavell |publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1999|location = New York|pages = [https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave/page/n137 111] and 431|isbn = 978-0-19-513107-9}}</ref> Moi regards this concept of human finitude as a suitable replacement for both castration and sexual difference as the traumatic "discovery of our separate, sexed, mortal existence" and how both men and women come to terms with it.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Claim of Reason: Wittgenstein, Skepticism, Morality, and Tragedy|url = https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave|url-access = limited|last = Cavell|first = Stanley|author-link=Stanley Cavell |publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1999|location = New York|page = [https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave/page/n457 431]|isbn = 978-0-19-513107-9}}</ref>