Editing Roman Republic (section)

==Military==
{{RomanMilitary}}
{{Main|Structural history of the Roman military}}
Rome's military secured Rome's territory and borders and helped to impose tribute on conquered peoples. Rome's armies had a formidable reputation; but Rome also "produced [its] share of incompetents"{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2016|p=15}} and catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of Rome's greatest enemies, such as [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] and [[Hannibal]],{{sfn|Lane Fox|2006|p=312}} to win early battles but lose the war.

===Hoplite armies===
{{Main|Phalanx}}
During this period, Roman soldiers seem to have been modelled after those of the [[Etruscans]] to the north,{{sfn|Sekunda|Northwood|1995|p=17}} who themselves are believed to have copied their style of warfare from the Greeks. Traditionally, the introduction of the [[phalanx formation]] into the Roman army is ascribed to the city's penultimate king, [[Servius Tullius]] (ruled 578–534).{{sfn|Sekunda|Northwood|1995|p=18}} The phalanx was effective in large, open spaces, but not on the hilly terrain of the central [[Italian peninsula]]. In the 4th century, the Romans replaced it with the more flexible manipular formation. This change is sometimes attributed to [[Marcus Furius Camillus]] and placed shortly after the [[Battle of the Allia|Gallic invasion]] of 390; more likely, it was copied from Rome's [[Samnium|Samnite]] enemies to the south.{{sfn|Sekunda|Northwood|1995|pp=37–38}}

===Manipular legion===
[[File:Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus Louvre n3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Detail from the [[Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus|Ahenobarbus relief]] showing (centre-right) two Roman foot-soldiers {{circa|122&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}. Depicted are [[Montefortino helmet|Montefortino-style helmets]] with horsehair plume, [[chain mail]] cuirasses with shoulder reinforcement, oval shields with calfskin covers, {{lang|la|[[gladius]]}} and {{lang|la|[[pilum]]}}.]]
[[File:D473-birème romaine-Liv2-ch10.png|thumb|upright=0.8|A Roman naval [[bireme]] depicted in a relief from the Temple of [[Fortuna (mythology)|Fortuna Primigenia]] in [[Praeneste]],<ref>D. B. Saddington (2011) [2007]. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=1D612o_X2VYC&pg=PR10 Classes: the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets]", in Paul Erdkamp (ed), ''A Companion to the Roman Army'', 201–217. Malden, Oxford, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-1-4051-2153-8}}. Plate 12.2 on p. 204.</ref> {{circa|120&nbsp;BC|lk=no}};<ref>Coarelli, Filippo (1987), ''I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana''. NIS, Rome, pp. 35–84.</ref> now in the [[Museo Pio-Clementino]] in the [[Vatican Museums]]]]

During this period, an army formation of around 5,000 men (of both heavy and light infantry) was known as a legion. ''Maniples'' were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class. They were typically deployed into three discrete lines based on the three [[heavy infantry]] types:

# The first line maniple was the {{lang|la|[[hastati]]}}, infantry soldiers who wore a bronze breastplate and a bronze helmet and carried an iron-clad wooden shield. They were armed with a sword and two throwing spears.
# The second line were the {{lang|la|[[principes]]}}. They were armed and armoured in the same manner as the {{lang|la|hastati}}, but wore a lighter coat of mail.
# The {{lang|la|[[triarii]]}} formed the third line. They were the last remnant of the hoplite-style troops in the Roman army. They were armed and armoured like the {{lang|la|principes}}, but carried a lighter spear.{{sfn|Polyb.|loc=B6}}

The three infantry classes{{sfn|Santosuosso|2008|p=18}} may have retained some slight parallel to social divisions within Roman society, but at least officially the three lines were based upon age and experience rather than social class. Young, unproven men served in the first line, older men with some military experience in the second, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience in the third.

The heavy infantry of the maniples was supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion.{{sfn|Santosuosso|2008|p=18}} The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians. There was an additional class of troops that followed the army without specific martial roles and was deployed to the rear of the third line. Its role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples. The light infantry consisted of 1,200 unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword, a small shield, and several light javelins.

Rome's military confederation with the other peoples of the Italian peninsula meant that half of its army was provided by the [[Socii]]. According to Polybius, Rome could draw on 770,000 men at the beginning of the Second Punic War, of which 700,000 were infantry and 70,000 met the requirements for cavalry.

A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after about 300, but it was massively upgraded about 40 years later, during the [[First Punic War]]. After a period of frenetic construction, the navy mushroomed to more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian ("Punic") pattern. Once completed, it could accommodate up to 100,000 sailors and embarked troops for battle. The navy thereafter declined in size.{{sfn|Webster|1994|p=156}}

In 217, near the beginning of the [[Second Punic War]], Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners. Severe social stresses, population decline, and the greater collapse of the middle classes meant that the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, which it had not had to do before. The distinction between the heavy infantry types began to blur, perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard-issue equipment. In addition, the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden upon Rome's allies for the provision of allied troops.{{sfn|Santosuosso|2008|p=11}} Eventually, the Romans were forced to begin hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions.{{sfn|Webster|1994|p=143}}

===Late Republican legions===
{{Main|Roman army of the late Republic}}
[[File:Roman warrior, ca. 80—20 BC.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A Roman soldier depicted in a fresco in [[Pompeii]], {{circa|80—20&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}]]

The organisation of the legions evolved throughout the Republican period. In 107, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. The distinction among the three heavy infantry classes, which had already blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock, while non-citizens came to dominate the ranks of the light infantry. The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.{{sfn|Santosuosso|2008|p=29}} Unlike earlier in the Republic, legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land. Instead, they received standard pay and were employed by the state on a fixed-term basis. As a consequence, military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society, to whom a salaried pay was attractive.

The legions of the late Republic were almost entirely heavy infantry. The main legionary sub-unit was a ''[[Cohort (military unit)|cohort]]'' of approximately 480 infantrymen, further divided into six [[Centuria#Military|centuries]] of 80 men each.{{sfn|Luttwak|1976|p=14}} Each century comprised 10 "tent groups" of eight men. Cavalry were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than as battlefield forces.{{sfn|Webster|1994|p=116}} Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men. Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) troops.{{sfn|Luttwak|1976|p=15}}

The army's most obvious deficiency lay in its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry.{{sfn|Luttwak|1976|p=43}} Particularly in the East, Rome's slow-moving infantry legions were often confronted by fast-moving cavalry troops and found themselves at a tactical disadvantage.

After Rome's subjugation of the Mediterranean, its navy declined in size, although it underwent short-term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. [[Julius Caesar]] assembled a fleet to cross the [[English Channel]] and invade [[Britannia]]. [[Pompey]] raised a fleet to deal with the [[Cilicia]]n pirates who threatened Rome's Mediterranean trading routes. During the civil war that followed, as many as 1,000 ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.{{sfn|Webster|1994|p=156}}