Editing Primate (section)

===Extinction threats===
[[File:Hunted Silky Sifakas.jpg|thumb|left|Humans are known to hunt other primates for food, called [[bushmeat]]. Pictured are two men who have killed a number of [[silky sifaka]] and [[white-headed lemur|white-headed brown]] lemurs.]]
The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) lists more than a third of primates as critically endangered or vulnerable. About 60% of primate species are threatened with extinction, including: 87% of species in Madagascar, 73% in Asia, 37% in Africa, and 36% in South and Central America.<ref name="Estrada-2017">{{Cite journal|last1=Estrada|first1=Alejandro|last2=Garber|first2=Paul A.|last3=Rylands|first3=Anthony B.|last4=Roos|first4=Christian|last5=Fernandez-Duque|first5=Eduardo|last6=Fiore|first6=Anthony Di|last7=Nekaris|first7=K. Anne-Isola|last8=Nijman|first8=Vincent|last9=Heymann|first9=Eckhard W.|date=2017-01-01|title=Impending extinction crisis of the world's primates: Why primates matter|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=e1600946|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1600946|issn=2375-2548|pmc=5242557|pmid=28116351|bibcode=2017SciA....3E0946E}}</ref> Additionally, 75% of primate species have decreasing populations.<ref name="Estrada-2017" /> Trade is regulated, as all species are listed by [[CITES]] in [[CITES#Appendix II|Appendix II]], except 50 species and subspecies listed in [[CITES#Appendix I|Appendix I]], which gain full protection from trade.<ref name="IFAW">{{cite book |author=IFAW |title=Born to be wild: Primates are not pets |publisher=International Fund for Animal Welfare |year=2005 |url=http://www.ifaw.org/Publications/Program_Publications/Wildlife_Trade/Campaign_Scientific_Publications/asset_upload_file812_49478.pdf |access-date=2011-02-26 |author-link=International Fund for Animal Welfare |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171340/http://www.ifaw.org/Publications/Program_Publications/Wildlife_Trade/Campaign_Scientific_Publications/asset_upload_file812_49478.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-26 }}</ref><ref name="CITES">{{cite web | author = CITES | title = Appendices I, II and III | publisher = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora | date = 2010-10-14 | url = http://www.cites.org/eng/app/index.php | access-date = 2012-04-02 |author-link=CITES}}</ref>

Common threats to primate species include [[deforestation]], [[forest fragmentation]], [[monkey drive]]s (resulting from primate crop raiding),<ref>{{cite book |author=Grubb, P. |year=1998 |chapter=The Sierra Leone monkey drives |title=Mammals of Ghana, Sierra Leone, and the Gambia |location=St. Ives |publisher=Trendrine |pages=214–219 |isbn=0-9512562-4-6}}</ref> and primate hunting for use in medicines, as pets, and for food. Large-scale tropical forest clearing is widely regarded as the process that most threatens primates.<ref name="Chapman">{{cite journal |last1=Chapman |first1=C. A. |last2=Peres |first2=C. A. |year=2001 |title=Primate conservation in the new millennium: the role of scientists |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=16–33 |doi=10.1002/1520-6505(2001)10:1<16::AID-EVAN1010>3.0.CO;2-O|s2cid=13494366 }}</ref><ref name="Mittermeier">{{cite book |author1=Mittermeier, R. A. |author2=Cheney, D. L. |name-list-style=amp |year=1987 |chapter=Conservation of primates and their habitats |title=Primate Societies |editor=Smuts, B. B. |editor2=Cheney, D. L. |editor3=Seyfarth, R. M. |editor4=Wrangham, R. W. |editor5= Struhsaker, T. T. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=477–490}}</ref><ref name="Southwick">{{cite journal|author1=Southwick, C. H. |author2=Siddiqi, M. F. |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=Status, conservation and management of primates in India |journal=Envis Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=81–91 |url=http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/primates/downloads/page81statusofprimates.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081001191112/http://wii.gov.in/envis/primates/downloads/page81statusofprimates.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-10-01 |access-date=2008-08-04}}</ref> More than 90% of primate species occur in tropical forests.<ref name="Mittermeier" /><ref name="Cowlishaw">{{cite book |author1=Cowlishaw, G. |author2=Dunbar, R. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=Primate Conservation Biology |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-11637-2}}</ref> The main cause of forest loss is clearing for agriculture, although commercial logging, [[Subsistence agriculture|subsistence]] harvesting of timber, mining, and dam construction also contribute to tropical forest destruction.<ref name="Cowlishaw" /> In Indonesia large areas of lowland forest have been cleared to increase [[palm oil]] production, and one analysis of satellite imagery concluded that during 1998 and 1999 there was a loss of 1,000 [[Sumatran orangutan]]s per year in the [[Leuser Ecosystem]] alone.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Schaik |first1=C. P. |last2=Monk |first2=K. A. |last3=Robertson |first3=J. M. Y. |year=2001 |title=Dramatic decline in orangutan numbers in the Leuser Ecosystem, northern Sumatra |journal=Oryx |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=14–25 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-3008.2001.00150.x|doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Silky Sifaka Pink Face Closeup.JPG|thumb|right|The critically endangered [[silky sifaka]]]]
Primates with a large body size (over 5&nbsp;kg) are at increased extinction risk due to their greater profitability to [[poaching|poachers]] compared to smaller primates.<ref name="Cowlishaw" /> They reach sexual maturity later and have a longer period between births. Populations therefore recover more slowly after being depleted by poaching or the pet trade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Purvis |first1=A. |last2=Gittleman |first2=J. L. |last3=Cowlishaw |first3=G. |last4=Mace |first4=G. M. |year=2000 |title=Predicting extinction risk in declining species |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |volume=267 |pages=1947–1952 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2000.1234 |pmid=11075706 |issue=1456 |pmc=1690772}}</ref> Data for some African cities show that half of all protein consumed in urban areas comes from the [[bushmeat]] trade.<ref name="Fa">{{cite journal |last1=Fa |first1=J. E. |last2=Juste |first2=J. |last3=Perez de Val |first3=J. |last4=Castroviejo |first4=J. |year=1995 |title=Impact of market hunting on mammal species in Equatorial Guinea |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_conservation-biology_1995-10_9_5/page/1107 |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=1107–1115 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.9051107.x|pmid=34261280 |hdl=10261/49187 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Endangered primates such as [[guenon]]s and the [[Drill (mammal)|drill]] are hunted at levels that far exceed sustainable levels.<ref name="Fa" /> This is due to their large body size, ease of transport and profitability per animal.<ref name="Fa" /> As farming encroaches on forest habitats, primates feed on the crops, causing the farmers large economic losses.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hill, C. M. |year=1997 |title=Crop-raiding by wild vertebrates: The farmer's perspective in an agricultural community in western Uganda |journal=International Journal of Pest Management |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=77–84 |doi=10.1080/096708797229022}}</ref> Primate crop raiding gives locals a negative impression of primates, hindering conservation efforts.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hill, C. M. |year=2002 |title=Primate conservation and local communities: Ethical issues and debates |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_2002-12_104_4/page/1184 |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=1184–1194 |doi=10.1525/aa.2002.104.4.1184|doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Madagascar]], home to five endemic primate families, has experienced the greatest extinction of the recent past; since human settlement 1,500&nbsp;years ago, at least eight classes and fifteen of the larger species have become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction.<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Primate | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica Online | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] | year = 2008 | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/476264/primate | access-date=2008-07-21}}</ref> Among the primates wiped out were ''[[Archaeoindris]]'' (a lemur larger than a silverback gorilla) and the families [[Palaeopropithecidae]] and [[Archaeolemuridae]].<ref name="britannica" />
[[File:Man of the woods.JPG|thumb|left|The [[critically endangered]] Sumatran orangutan]]
In Asia, [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Islam]] prohibit eating primate meat; however, primates are still hunted for food.<ref name="Cowlishaw" /> Some smaller traditional religions allow the consumption of primate meat.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Choudhury, A. |year=2001 |title=Primates in Northeast India: an overview of their distribution and conservation status |journal=Envis Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=92–101 |url=http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/primates/downloads/page92primatesne.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081001191106/http://wii.gov.in/envis/primates/downloads/page92primatesne.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-10-01 |access-date=2008-08-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumara |first1=H. N. |last2=Singh |first2=M. |date=October 2004 |title=Distribution and abundance of primates in rainforests of the Western Ghats, Karnataka, India and the conservation of ''Macaca silenus'' |journal=International Journal of Primatology |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=1001–1018 |doi=10.1023/B:IJOP.0000043348.06255.7f|s2cid=30384142 }}</ref> The pet trade and traditional medicine also increase demand for illegal hunting.<ref name="Workman" /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Nijman, V. |year=2004 |title=Conservation of the Javan gibbon ''Hylobates moloch'': population estimates, local extinction, and conservation priorities |journal=The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=271–280 |url=http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/52/52rbz271-280.pdf |access-date=2008-08-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910043814/http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/52/52rbz271-280.pdf |archive-date=2008-09-10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Brien |first1=T. G. |last2=Kinnaird |first2=M. F. |last3=Nurcahyo |first3=A. |last4=Iqbal |first4=M. |last5=Rusmanto |first5=M. |date=April 2004 |title=Abundance and distribution of sympatric gibbons in a threatened Sumatran rain forest |journal=International Journal of Primatology |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=267–284 |doi=10.1023/B:IJOP.0000019152.83883.1c|s2cid=32472118 }}</ref> The [[rhesus macaque]], a [[model organism]], was protected after excessive trapping threatened its numbers in the 1960s; the program was so effective that they are now viewed as a pest throughout their range.<ref name="Southwick" />

In Central and South America, forest fragmentation and hunting are the two main problems for primates. Large tracts of forest are now rare in Central America.<ref name="Chapman" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Estrada |first1=A. |last2=Coates-Estrada |first2=R. |last3=Meritt |first3=D. |date=September 1994 |title=Non-flying mammals and landscape changes in the tropical forest region of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico |journal=Ecography |volume=17 |pages=229–241 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0587.1994.tb00098.x |issue=3}}</ref> This increases the amount of forest vulnerable to [[edge effect]]s such as farmland encroachment, lower levels of humidity and a change in plant life.<ref>{{cite book |author=Marsh, L. K. |year=2003 |chapter=The nature of fragmentation. |title=Primates in Fragments: Ecology and Conservation |editor=Marsh, L. K. |location=New York |publisher=[[Kluwer Academic]]/[[Plenum Publishers]] |pages=1–10 |isbn=0-306-47696-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Turner, I. M. |year=1996 |title=Species loss in fragments of tropical rain forest: a review of the evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-ecology_1996-04_33_2/page/200 |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=33 |pages=200–209 |doi=10.2307/2404743 |issue=2 |jstor=2404743|bibcode=1996JApEc..33..200T }}</ref> Movement restriction results in a greater amount of inbreeding, which can cause deleterious effects leading to a [[population bottleneck]], whereby a significant percentage of the population is lost.<ref>{{cite book |author=Chiarello, A.G. |year=2003 |chapter=Primates of the Brazilian Atlantic forest: the influence of forest fragmentation on survival |title=Primates in Fragments: Ecology and Conservation |editor=Marsh, L. K. |location=New York |publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers |pages=99–121 |isbn=978-0-306-47696-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Pope, T.R. |year=1996 |chapter=Socioecology, population fragmentation, and patterns of genetic loss in endangered primates |title=Conservation Genetics: Case Histories from Nature |url=https://archive.org/details/conservationgene0000unse |editor=Avise, J. |editor2=Hamrick, J. |location=Norwell |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |pages=[https://archive.org/details/conservationgene0000unse/page/119 119]–159 |isbn=978-0-412-05581-2}}</ref>

There are 21 critically endangered primates, seven of which have remained on the IUCN's "[[The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates]]" list since the year 2000: the [[silky sifaka]], [[Delacour's langur]], the [[white-headed langur]], the [[gray-shanked douc]], the [[Tonkin snub-nosed monkey]], the [[Cross River gorilla]] and the [[Sumatran orangutan]].<ref>{{cite book | editor1-last = Mittermeier | editor1-first = R.A. | editor2-last = Wallis | editor2-first = J. | editor3-last = Rylands | editor3-first = A.B. | editor4-last = Ganzhorn | editor4-first = J.U. | editor5-last = Oates | editor5-first = J.F. | editor6-last = Williamson | editor6-first = E.A. | editor7-last = Palacios | editor7-first = E. | editor8-last = Heymann | editor8-first = E.W. | editor9-last = Kierulff | editor9-first = M.C.M. | editor10-last = Yongcheng | editor10-first = L. | editor11-last = Supriatna | editor11-first = J. | editor12-last = Roos | editor12-first = C. | editor13-last = Walker | editor13-first = S. | editor14-last = Cortés-Ortiz | editor14-first = L. | editor15-last = Schwitzer | editor15-first = C. | others = Illustrated by S.D. Nash | editor-link = Russell Mittermeier | year = 2009 | title = Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2008–2010 | publisher = IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS), and Conservation International (CI) | location = Arlington, VA. | pages = 23–26 | isbn = 978-1-934151-34-1 | url = http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/PDF/Primates.in.Peril.2008-2010.pdf}}</ref> [[Miss Waldron's red colobus]] was recently declared extinct when no trace of the subspecies could be found from 1993 to 1999.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oates |first1=J. F. |last2=Abedi-Lartey |first2=M. |last3=McGraw |first3=W. S. |last4=Struhsaker |first4=T. T. |last5=Whitesides |first5=G. H. | title=Extinction of a West African Red Colobus Monkey | journal=Conservation Biology | date=October 2000 | volume=14 | issue=5 | doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99230.x | pages=1526–1532|bibcode=2000ConBi..14.1526O |s2cid=84336872 }}</ref> A few hunters have found and killed individuals since then, but the subspecies' prospects remain bleak.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Update on the Search for Miss Waldron's Red Colobus Monkey |author=McGraw, W. S. |journal=International Journal of Primatology |volume=26 |issue=3 |date=June 2005 |pages=605–619 |doi=10.1007/s10764-005-4368-9|s2cid=861418 }}</ref>