Editing Pacifism (section)

====Later 20th century====
[[File:Vietnamdem.jpg|thumb|A demonstrator offers a flower to military police at an [[Opposition to Vietnam War|anti-Vietnam War protest]], 1967.]]
[[File:Massale vredesdemonstratie in Bonn tegen de modernisering van kernwapens in West, Bestanddeelnr 253-8611.jpg|thumb|Protest against the deployment of [[Pershing II]] missiles in Europe, Bonn, West Germany, 1981]]

[[Baptist]] [[Minister of religion|minister]] [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] led a [[civil rights movement]] in the U.S., employing [[Gandhism|Gandhian]] [[nonviolent resistance]] to repeal laws enforcing racial segregation and to work for integration of schools, businesses and government. In 1957, his wife [[Coretta Scott King]], along with [[Albert Schweitzer]], [[Benjamin Spock]] and others, formed the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy (now [[Peace Action]]) to resist the [[nuclear arms race]]. In 1958 British activists formed the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] with Bertrand Russell as its president.

In 1960, [[Thich Nhat Hanh]] came to the U.S. to study [[comparative religion]] at [[Princeton University]] and was subsequently appointed a lecturer in Buddhism at [[Columbia University]]. Nhất Hạnh had written a letter to King in 1965 entitled "Searching for the Enemy of Man" and met with King in 1966 to urge him to publicly denounce the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name="aavw.org" /> In a famous 1967 speech at [[Riverside Church]] in New York City,<ref>[http://www.aavw.org/special_features/speeches_speech_king01.html "Beyond Vietnam"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060820044643/http://www.aavw.org/special_features/speeches_speech_king01.html |date=20 August 2006 }}, 1967-04-04, speech made by King at the Riverside Church, NYC, archived on the African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War website</ref> King publicly questioned the U.S. involvement in Vietnam for the first time.

Other examples from this period include the 1986 [[People Power Revolution]] in the Philippines led by [[Cory Aquino|Corazon Aquino]] and the 1989 [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Tiananmen Square protests]], with the broadly publicized "[[Tank Man]]" incident as its indelible image.

On 1 December 1948, President [[José Figueres Ferrer]] of Costa Rica abolished the [[military of Costa Rica|Costa Rican military]].<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2019.htm "Costa Rica"] . U.S. Department of State.</ref> In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican constitution. The budget previously dedicated to the military is now dedicated to providing healthcare services and education.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/opinion/07kristof.html?_r=1 "The Happiest People"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224163549/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/opinion/07kristof.html?_r=1 |date=24 December 2016}}. ''The New York Times''. 6 January 2010.</ref>

Within the halls of academe, several philosophers endeavored to demonstrate that the theoretical principles underlying secular pacifism could be successfully applied in order to resolve several unique forms of international conflict which emerged as the 20th century came to a close. Included in this group is [[Robert L. Holmes]], who illustrates that four principles of "moral personalism" can be utilized within the context of both [[nuclear war]] and [[terrorism]] in order to promote an ethically viable outcome.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2185583.pdf | jstor=2185583 | last1=Meyers | first1=Diana T. | title=Reviewed work: On War and Morality, Robert L. Holmes | journal=The Philosophical Review | date=1992 | volume=101 | issue=2 | pages=481–484 | doi=10.2307/2185583 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1961738.pdf | jstor=1961738 | last1=Rock | first1=Stephen R. | title=Reviewed work: On War and Morality, Robert L. Holmes; Paths to Peace: Exploring the Feasibility of Sustainable Peace, Richard Smoke, Willis Harman | journal=The American Political Science Review | date=1989 | volume=83 | issue=4 | pages=1447–1448 | doi=10.2307/1961738 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2216042.pdf | jstor=2216042 | last1=Lee | first1=Steven | title=Reviewed work: On War and Morality., Robert L. Holmes | journal=Noûs | date=1992 | volume=26 | issue=4 | pages=559–562 | doi=10.2307/2216042 }}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yGx-2-maackC ''The Ethics of Nonviolence: Essay by Robert L. Holmes'' - Book blurb on google.books.com]</ref> He further argues that waging war in the modern era  is unjustifiable when considered in its totality and that by transcending the particular perceptions of injustice in a conflict it is possible to be a "pragmatic pacifist".<ref>[https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/pacificism-a-philosophy-of-nonviolence/ ''Pacifism A Philosophy of Nonviolence''. Holmes, Robert L. Bloomsbury, London, 2017 pp.265-266, "Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews" - "Pacifism A Philosophy of Nonviolence"  Book review presented by Cheyney Ryan, the University of Oxford 6/7/2017 archived at the University of Notre Dame on ndpr.nd.edu]</ref>