Editing Music (section)

== Psychology ==
{{Main|Music psychology}}
Modern music psychology aims to explain and understand musical [[behavior]] and [[experience]].<ref name="Tan">{{Cite book |last1=Tan |first1=Siu-Lan |title=Psychology of Music: From Sound to Significance |last2=Pfordresher |first2=Peter |last3=Harré |first3=Rom |date=2010 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-84169-868-7 |location=New York |page=2}}</ref> Research in this field and its subfields are primarily [[Empirical research|empirical]]; their knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic [[observation]] of and interaction with [[human subject research|human participants]]. In addition to its focus on fundamental perceptions and cognitive processes, music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas, including music [[musical technique|performance]], [[music composition|composition]], [[music education|education]], [[music criticism|criticism]], and [[music therapy|therapy]], as well as investigations of human [[aptitude]], skill, [[intelligence]], creativity, and [[social behavior]].

=== Neuroscience ===
{{Main|Neuroscience of music}}
[[File:Brodmann 41 42.png|thumb|The [[primary auditory cortex]] is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution.]]

[[Cognitive neuroscience]] of music is the scientific study of brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. The field is distinguished by its reliance on direct observations of the brain, using such techniques as [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI), [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), [[magnetoencephalography]] (MEG), [[electroencephalography]] (EEG), and [[positron emission tomography]] (PET).

=== Cognitive musicology ===
{{Main|Cognitive musicology}}
Cognitive musicology is a branch of [[cognitive science]] concerned with [[computer model|computationally modeling]] musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Laske |first=Otto |url=https://archive.org/details/ottolaskenavigat0000unse |title=Navigating New Musical Horizons (Contributions to the Study of Music and Dance) |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-313-30632-7 |location=Westport |url-access=registration}}</ref> The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories and has roots in [[artificial intelligence]] and [[cognitive science]].<ref>Laske, O. (1999). AI and music: A cornerstone of cognitive musicology. In M. Balaban, K. Ebcioglu, & O. Laske (Eds.), ''Understanding music with ai: Perspectives on music cognition.'' Cambridge: The MIT Press.</ref>

Cognitive musicology investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain. Research often includes biologically inspired models of computation, such as neural networks and evolutionary programs.<ref>Graci, C. (2009–2010) A brief tour of the learning sciences featuring a cognitive tool for investigating melodic phenomena. ''Journal of Educational Technology Systems'', 38(2), 181–211.</ref> This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated.<ref>Hamman, M., 1999. "Structure as Performance: Cognitive Musicology and the Objectification of Procedure", in Otto Laske: Navigating New Musical Horizons, ed. J. Tabor. New York: Greenwood Press.</ref>

=== Psychoacoustics ===
{{Main|Psychoacoustics}}
Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the [[psychological]] and [[physiological]] responses associated with sound (including [[speech]] and music). It can be further categorized as a branch of [[psychophysics]].

=== Evolutionary musicology ===
{{Main|Evolutionary musicology}}
Evolutionary musicology concerns the "origins of music, the question of animal song, selection pressures underlying music evolution", and "music evolution and human evolution".<ref name="Brown, Merker, Wallin">Wallin, Nils L./Björn Merker/Steven Brown (1999): "An Introduction to Evolutionary Musicology." In: Wallin, Nils L./Björn Merker/Steven Brown (Eds., 1999): ''The Origins of Music'', pp. 5–6. {{ISBN|0-262-23206-5}}.</ref> It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of [[evolutionary theory]]. [[Charles Darwin]] speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a [[protolanguage]],<ref>{{Cite web |year=1871 |title=The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext00/dscmn10.txt |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402225829/http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext00/dscmn10.txt |archive-date=2 April 2012 |access-date=24 April 2014}} Chapter III; Language</ref> a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Origins of Music |publisher=MIT Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-262-23206-7 |editor-last=Nils L. Wallin |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |editor-last2=Björn Merker |editor-last3=Steven Brown}}</ref>{{sfn|Mithen|2005|page=}}{{page needed|date=July 2022}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hagen |first1=Edward H |last2=Hammerstein P |year=2009 |title=Did Neanderthals and other early humans sing? Seeking the biological roots of music in the loud calls of primates, lions, hyenas, and wolves |url=http://anthro.vancouver.wsu.edu/media/PDF/musicae.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Musicae Scientiae |doi=10.1177/1029864909013002131 |s2cid=39481097 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530015628/http://anthro.vancouver.wsu.edu/media/PDF/musicae.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2010 |access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> An alternate view sees music as a by-product of [[linguistic evolution]]; a type of "auditory cheesecake" that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pinker |first=Steven |title=How the Mind Works |title-link=How the Mind Works |date=1997 |publisher=W. W. Norton |isbn=978-0-393-04535-2 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/howmindworks00pink/page/534 534]}}</ref> This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers.<ref>Perlovsky L. Music. Cognitive Function, Origin, And Evolution Of Musical Emotions. WebmedCentral PSYCHOLOGY 2011;2(2):WMC001494</ref><ref>Alison Abbott. 2002. "Neurobiology: Music, maestro, please!" ''Nature'' 416, 12–14 (7 March 2002) | {{doi|10.1038/416012a}}</ref><ref name="Steven Pinker's Cheesecake for the Mind">{{Cite web |last=Carroll, Joseph |year=1998 |title=Steven Pinker's Cheesecake For The Mind |url=http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Carroll_C98.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129122654/http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Carroll_C98.html |archive-date=29 January 2013 |access-date=29 December 2012 |publisher=Cogweb.ucla.edu}}</ref>

=== Cultural effects ===
{{Main|Culture in music cognition}}An individual's culture or [[ethnicity]] plays a role in their [[music cognition]], including their [[Psychology of music preference|preferences]], [[Music and emotion|emotional reaction]], and [[music-related memory|musical memory]]. Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults' classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features.<ref name="Soley 2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Soley |first1=G. |last2=Hannon |first2=E. E. |year=2010 |title=Infants prefer the musical meter of their own culture: A cross-cultural comparison |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=286–292 |doi=10.1037/a0017555 |pmid=20053025}}</ref><ref name="Balkwill 2004">{{Cite journal |last1=Balkwill |first1=L. |last2=Thompson |first2=W. F. |last3=Matsunaga |first3=R. |year=2004 |title=Recognition of emotion in Japanese, Western, and Hindustani music by Japanese listeners |journal=Japanese Psychological Research |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=337–349 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-5584.2004.00265.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, individuals' musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music.<ref name="Demorest 2008">{{Cite journal |last1=Demorest |first1=S. M. |last2=Morrison |first2=S. J. |last3=Beken |first3=M. N. |last4=Jungbluth |first4=D. |year=2008 |title=Lost in translation: An enculturation effect in music memory performance |journal=Music Perception |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=213–223 |doi=10.1525/mp.2008.25.3.213}}</ref><ref name="Groussard 2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Groussard |first1=M. |last2=Rauchs |first2=G. |last3=Landeau |first3=B. |last4=Viader |first4=F. |last5=Desgranges |first5=B. |last6=Eustache |first6=F. |last7=Platel |first7=H. |year=2010 |title=The neural substrates of musical memory revealed by fMRI and two semantic tasks |url=https://www.hal.inserm.fr/inserm-00538633/file/Manuscript_Groussard_Neuroimage2010.pdf |url-status=live |journal=NeuroImage |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=1301–1309 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.013 |pmid=20627131 |s2cid=8955075 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429135639/https://www.hal.inserm.fr/inserm-00538633/file/Manuscript_Groussard_Neuroimage2010.pdf |archive-date=29 April 2019 |access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref>

=== Perceptual ===
Since the emergence of the study of [[psychoacoustics]] in the 1930s, most lists of elements of music have related more to how we ''hear'' music than how we learn to play it or study it. C.E. Seashore, in his book ''Psychology of Music'',<ref>Seashore, C. E. (1938). ''Psychology of Music'': New York: Dover Publications.</ref> identified four "psychological attributes of sound". These were: "pitch, loudness, time, and timbre" (p.&nbsp;3). He did not call them the "elements of music" but referred to them as "elemental components" (p.&nbsp;2). Nonetheless, these elemental components link precisely with four of the most common musical elements: "Pitch" and "timbre" match exactly, "loudness" links with dynamics, and "time" links with the time-based elements of rhythm, duration, and tempo. This usage of the phrase "the elements of music" links more closely with ''Webster's New 20th Century Dictionary'' definition of an element as: "a substance which cannot be divided into a simpler form by known methods"<ref>Webster, N. (Ed.) (1947) Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary. Clevelend Ohio: The World Publishing Company.</ref> and educational institutions' lists of elements generally align with this definition as well.

Although writers of lists of "rudimentary elements of music" can vary their lists depending on their personal (or institutional) priorities, the perceptual elements of music should consist of an established (or proven) list of discrete elements which can be independently manipulated to achieve an intended musical effect. It seems at this stage that there is still research to be done in this area.

A slightly different way of approaching the identification of the elements of music, is to identify the "elements of [[sound]]" as: [[Pitch (music)|pitch]], [[Duration (music)|duration]], [[loudness]], [[timbre]], [[Texture (music)|sonic texture]] and [[Sound localization|spatial location]],<ref name="search.informit.com.au">Burton, R.L. (2015). [https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=649996699786780;res=IELHSS The elements of music: what are they, and who cares?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510200056/https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=649996699786780;res=IELHSS |date=10 May 2020 }} In J. Rosevear & S. Harding. (Eds.), ASME XXth National Conference proceedings. Paper presented at: Music: Educating for life: ASME XXth National Conference (pp. 22–28), Parkville, Victoria: The Australian Society for Music Education Inc.</ref> and then to define the "elements of music" as: sound, structure, and artistic intent.<ref name="search.informit.com.au" />