Editing Jupiter (god) (section)

== Theology ==
=== Sources ===
[[Marcus Terentius Varro]] and [[Verrius Flaccus]]{{efn|The work of Verrius Flaccus is preserved through the summary of [[Sextus Pompeius Festus]] and his epitomist [[Paul the Deacon]].}} were the main sources on the theology of Jupiter and archaic Roman religion in general. Varro was acquainted with the ''[[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#libri pontificales|libri pontificum]]'' ("books of the [[College of Pontiffs|Pontiffs]]") and their archaic classifications.<ref>{{harvp|Dumézil|1974|loc="Remarques preliminaires" X}}; {{harvp|Dumézil|1977|p=59 ff}}; citing Lucien Gerschel "Varron logicien" in ''Latomus'' '''17''' 1958 pp. 65–72.</ref> On these two sources depend other ancient authorities, such as [[Ovid]], [[Maurus Servius Honoratus|Servius]], [[Aulus Gellius]], [[Macrobius]], [[Church Fathers|patristic texts]], [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] and [[Plutarch]].

One of the most important sources which preserve the theology of Jupiter and other [[List of Roman deities|Roman deities]] is ''[[City of God (book)|The City of God against the Pagans]]'' by [[Augustine of Hippo]]. Augustine's criticism of traditional Roman religion is based on Varro's lost work, ''[[Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum|Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum]]''. Although a work of [[Christian apologetics]], ''The City of God'' provides glimpses into Varro's theological system and authentic Roman theological lore in general. According to Augustine,<ref>Augustine ''De Civitate Dei'' IV 27; VI 5.</ref> Varro drew on the pontiff [[Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex|Mucius Scaevola]]'s tripartite theology:

* The [[mythical theology|mythic theology]] of the poets (useful for the [[Theatre of ancient Rome|theatre]])
* The [[Natural theology|physical theology]] of the philosophers (useful for understanding the natural world)
* The civil theology of the priests (useful for the state)<ref>{{cite journal |first=J. |last=Pépin |title=La théologie tripartite de Varron |journal=Revue des études augustiniennes |volume=2 |date=1956 |pages=265–294|doi=10.1484/J.REA.5.103923 }} Dumézil has pointed out that even though Augustine may be correct in pointing out cases in which Varro presented under the civil theology category contents that may look to belong to mythic theology, nevertheless he preserved under this heading the lore and legends ancient Romans considered their own.</ref>

=== {{anchor|Theology of Jupiter in early Rome}}Jovian theology ===
[[Georg Wissowa]] stressed Jupiter's uniqueness as the only case among Indo-European religions in which the original god preserved his name, his identity and his prerogatives.{{sfnp|Wissowa|1912|page=100}} In this view, Jupiter is the god of heaven and retains his identification with the sky among the Latin poets (his name is used as a synonym for "sky".<ref>{{harvp|Wissowa|1912}} cites three passages from Horace, ''Carmina'': I 1, 25 ''manet sub Iove frigido venator''; I 22, 20 ''quod latus mundi nebulae malusque Iuppiter urget''; III 10, 7 ''ut glaciet nives puro numine Iuppiter''.</ref>) In this respect, he differs from his Greek equivalent Zeus (who is considered a personal god, warden and dispenser of skylight). His name reflects this idea; it is a derivative of the Indo-European word for "bright, shining sky". His residence is found atop the hills of Rome and of mountains in general; as a result, his cult is present in Rome and throughout Italy at upper elevations.<ref>On the Esquiline lies the ''sacellum'' of ''Iuppiter Fagutalis'' (Varro ''De Lingua Latina'' V 152, Paulus p. 87 M., Pliny ''Naturalis historia'' XVI 37, CIL VI 452); on the Viminal is known a ''Iuppiter Viminius'' (Varro ''De Lingua Latina'' V 51, Festus p. 376); a ''Iuppiter Caelius'' on the Caelius (CIL VI 334); on the Quirinal the so called ''Capitolium Vetus'' (Martial V 22, 4; VII 73, 4). Outside Rome: Iuppiter Latiaris on ''Mons Albanus'', [[Temple of Jupiter Apenninus|Iuppiter Appenninus]] (Orelli 1220, CIL VIII 7961 and XI 5803) on the Umbrian Apennines, at Scheggia, on the [[Via Flaminia]], Iuppiter Poeninus (CIL 6865 ff., cfr. Bernabei ''Rendiconti della Regia Accademia dei Lincei'' '''III''', 1887, fascicolo 2, p. 363 ff.) at Great Saint Bernard Pass, Iuppiter Vesuvius (CIL X 3806), Iuppiter Ciminus (CIL XI 2688); the Sabine Iuppiter Cacunus (CIL IX 4876, VI 371). Outside Italy Iuppiter Culminalis in Noricum and Pannonia (CIL III 3328, 4032, 4115, 5186; Supplememtum 10303, 11673 etc.) as cited by {{harvp|Wissowa|1912|page=102}} and Francesca Cenerini "Scritture di santuari extraurbani tra le Alpi e gli Appennini" in ''[[Mélanges de l'École française de Rome]]'' '''104''' 1992 1 pp. 94–95.</ref> Jupiter assumed atmospheric qualities; he is the wielder of lightning and the master of weather. However, Wissowa acknowledges that Jupiter is not merely a naturalistic, heavenly, supreme deity; he is in continual communication with man by means of thunder, lightning and the flight of birds (his [[auspices]]). Through his vigilant watch he is also the guardian of public oaths and compacts and the guarantor of good faith in the State cult.<ref>{{harvp|Wissowa|1912|pages=100–101}}</ref> The Jovian cult was common to the [[Italic people]] under the names ''Iove'', ''Diove'' (Latin) and ''Iuve'', ''Diuve'' (Oscan, in Umbrian only ''Iuve'', ''Iupater'' in the [[Iguvine Tables]]).

Wissowa considered Jupiter also a god of war and agriculture, in addition to his political role as guarantor of good faith (public and private) as ''Iuppiter Lapis'' and ''Dius Fidius'', respectively. His view is grounded in the sphere of action of the god (who intervenes in battle and influences the harvest through weather).{{sfnp|Wissowa|1912|pages=103–108}}

In [[Georges Dumézil]]'s view, Jovian theology (and that of the equivalent gods in other Indo-European religions) is an evolution from a naturalistic, supreme, celestial god identified with heaven to a sovereign god, a wielder of lightning bolts, master and protector of the community (in other words, of a change from a naturalistic approach to the world of the divine to a socio-political approach).{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|pp=167–168}}
[[File:Giorgione, The tempest.jpg|thumb|One interpretation of the lightning in [[Giorgione]]'s ''[[The Tempest (Giorgione)|Tempest]]'' is that it represents the presence of Jupiter.<ref>{{cite book |author=Salvatore Settis |title=Giorgione's ''Tempest'': Interpreting the Hidden Subject |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |page=62 |postscript=,}} summarising this scholarly interpretation: "The lightning is Jove" cf. {{cite book |author=Peter Humfrey |title=Painting in Renaissance Venice |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1997 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ARLTK284AHAC&pg=PA118 118f]}}</ref> |alt=Painting of a mother feeding her child, watched by a shepherd, with lightning flashing across a dark sky in the background]]

In [[Vedic mythology|Vedic religion]], [[Dyaus Pitar]] remained confined to his distant, removed, passive role and the place of sovereign god was occupied by [[Varuna]] and [[Mitra]]. In Greek and Roman religion, instead, the homonymous gods ''*Diou-'' and ''Δι[[digamma|ϝ]]-'' evolved into atmospheric deities; by their mastery of thunder and lightning, they expressed themselves and made their will known to the community. In Rome, Jupiter also sent signs to the leaders of the state in the form of [[auspices]] in addition to thunder. The art of [[augury]] was considered prestigious by ancient Romans; by sending his signs, Jupiter (the sovereign of heaven) communicates his advice to his terrestrial colleague: the king (''rex'') or his successor magistrates. The encounter between the heavenly and political, legal aspects of the deity are well represented by the prerogatives, privileges, functions and taboos proper to his ''[[flamen]]'' (the ''[[flamen Dialis]]'' and his wife, the ''flaminica Dialis'').

Dumézil maintains that Jupiter is not himself a god of war and agriculture, although his actions and interest may extend to these spheres of human endeavour. His view is based on the methodological assumption that the chief criterion for studying a god's nature is not to consider his field of action, but the quality, method and features of his action. Consequently, the analysis of the type of action performed by Jupiter in the domains in which he operates indicates that Jupiter is a sovereign god who may act in the field of politics (as well as agriculture and war) in his capacity as such, i.e. in a way and with the features proper to a king. Sovereignty is expressed through the two aspects of absolute, magic power (epitomised and represented by the Vedic god [[Varuna]]) and lawful right (by the Vedic god [[Mitra]]).{{sfnp|Dumézil|1996|p=239}}{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|p=171}} However, sovereignty permits action in every field; otherwise, it would lose its essential quality. As a further proof, Dumézil cites the story of Tullus Hostilius (the most belligerent of the Roman kings), who was killed by Jupiter with a lightning bolt (indicating that he did not enjoy the god's favour).
Varro's definition of Jupiter as the god who has under his jurisdiction the full expression of every being (''penes Iovem sunt summa'') reflects the sovereign nature of the god, as opposed to the jurisdiction of Janus (god of passages and change) on their beginning (''penes Ianum sunt prima'').<ref>Varro apud Augustine ''De Civitate Dei VII 9.''</ref>