Editing Female genital mutilation (section)

===Colonial opposition in Kenya===
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{{Further|Campaign against female genital mutilation in colonial Kenya}}
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Little knives in their sheaths
That they may fight with the church,
The time has come.
Elders (of the church)
When [[Jomo Kenyatta|Kenyatta]] comes
You will be given women's clothes
And you will have to cook him his food.</poem>
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|source= — From the ''Muthirigu'' (1929), [[Kikuyu people|Kikuyu]] dance-songs against church opposition to FGM<ref>Kenneth Mufuka, [https://web.archive.org/web/20111123065512/http://www.irss.uoguelph.ca/article/viewFile/176/218 "Scottish Missionaries and the Circumcision Controversy in Kenya, 1900–1960"], ''International Review of Scottish Studies'', 28, 2003, 55.</ref>
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Protestant missionaries in [[East Africa Protectorate|British East Africa]] (present-day Kenya) began campaigning against FGM in the early 20th century, when Dr. [[John Arthur (missionary)|John Arthur]] joined the [[Church of Scotland]] Mission (CSM) in Kikuyu. An important ethnic marker, the practice was known by the [[Kikuyu people|Kikuyu]], the country's main ethnic group, as ''irua'' for both girls and boys. It involved excision (Type II) for girls and removal of the foreskin for boys. Unexcised Kikuyu women (''irugu'') were outcasts.<ref>{{harvnb|Thomas|2000|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rhhRXiJIGEcC&pg=PA132 132]}}. For ''irua'', {{harvnb|Kenyatta|1962|loc=129}}; for ''irugu'' as outcasts, {{harvnb|Kenyatta|1962|loc=127}}. Also see {{harvnb|Zabus|2008|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xZmWF3qxHo4C&pg=PA48 48]}}.</ref>

[[Jomo Kenyatta]], general secretary of the [[Kikuyu Central Association]] and later Kenya's first prime minister, wrote in 1938 that, for the Kikuyu, the institution of FGM was the "''[[Sine qua non|conditio sine qua non]]'' of the whole teaching of tribal law, religion and morality". No proper Kikuyu man or woman would marry or have sexual relations with someone who was not circumcised, he wrote. A woman's responsibilities toward the tribe began with her initiation. Her age and place within tribal history were traced to that day, and the group of girls with whom she was cut was named according to current events, an [[oral tradition]] that allowed the Kikuyu to track people and events going back hundreds of years.{{sfn|Kenyatta|1962|loc=127–130}}

[[File:Hulda Stumpf, Africa Inland Mission conference.jpg|thumb|left|alt=photograph|[[Hulda Stumpf]] ''(bottom left)'' was murdered in Kikuyu in 1930 after opposing FGM.]]

Beginning with the CSM in 1925, several missionary churches declared that FGM was prohibited for African Christians; the CSM announced that Africans practising it would be excommunicated, which resulted in hundreds leaving or being expelled.{{sfn|Fiedler|1996|loc=75}} In 1929 the Kenya Missionary Council began referring to FGM as the "sexual mutilation of women", and a person's stance toward the practice became a test of loyalty, either to the Christian churches or to the Kikuyu Central Association.<ref>{{harvnb|Thomas|2000|loc=132}}; for the "sexual mutilation of women", {{harvnb|Karanja|2009|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=F1ezIgyomGIC&pg=PA93 93], n.&nbsp;631}}. Also see {{harvnb|Strayer|Murray|1978|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9kpLvKnZCR8C&pg=PA139 139ff]}}.</ref> The stand-off turned FGM into a focal point of the Kenyan independence movement; the 1929–1931 period is known in the country's historiography as the female circumcision controversy.<ref>{{harvnb|Boddy|2007|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T77ui7IPNwkC&pg=PA241 241–245]}}; {{harvnb|Hyam|1990|loc=196}}; {{harvnb|Murray|1976|loc=92–104}}.</ref> When [[Hulda Stumpf]], an American missionary who opposed FGM in the girls' school she helped to run, was murdered in 1930, [[Edward Grigg]], the [[List of colonial governors and administrators of Kenya|governor of Kenya]], told the British [[Colonial Office]] that the killer had tried to circumcise her.<ref>{{harvnb|Boddy|2007|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T77ui7IPNwkC&pg=PA241 241], [https://books.google.com/books?id=T77ui7IPNwkC&pg=PA241 244]}}; {{harvnb|Robert|1996|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=98eI044RjlwC&pg=PA230 230]}}.</ref>

There was some opposition from Kenyan women themselves. At the mission in Tumutumu, [[Karatina]], where [[Marion Scott Stevenson]] worked, a group calling themselves ''Ngo ya Tuiritu'' ("Shield of Young Girls"), the membership of which included Raheli Warigia (mother of [[Gakaara wa Wanjaũ]]), wrote to the Local Native Council of South Nyeri on 25 December 1931: "[W]e of the Ngo ya Tuiritu heard that there are men who talk of female circumcision, and we get astonished because they (men) do not give birth and feel the pain and even some die and even others become infertile, and the main cause is circumcision. Because of that, the issue of circumcision should not be forced. People are caught like sheep; one should be allowed to cut her own way of either agreeing to be circumcised or not without being dictated on one's own body."<ref>{{harvnb|wa Kihurani|Warigia wa Johanna|Murigo wa Meshak|2007|loc=118–120}}; {{harvnb|Peterson|2012|loc=217}}.</ref>

Elsewhere, support for the practice from women was strong. In 1956 in Meru, eastern Kenya, when the council of male elders (the ''Njuri Nchecke'') announced a ban on FGM in 1956, thousands of girls cut each other's genitals with razor blades over the next three years as a symbol of defiance. The movement came to be known as ''Ngaitana'' ("I will circumcise myself"), because to avoid naming their friends the girls said they had cut themselves. Historian Lynn Thomas described the episode as significant in the history of FGM because it made clear that its victims were also its perpetrators.<ref>{{harvnb|Thomas|2000|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rhhRXiJIGEcC&pg=PA129 129–131] (131 for the girls as "central actors")}}; also in {{harvnb|Thomas|1996}} and {{harvnb|Thomas|2003|loc=89–91}}.</ref> FGM was eventually outlawed in Kenya in 2001, although the practice continued, reportedly driven by older women.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Topping |first1=Alexandra |title=Kenyan girls taken to remote regions to undergo FGM in secret |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jul/24/kenya-girls-female-genital-mutilation-fgm-secret |work=The Guardian |date=24 July 2014 |access-date=17 January 2019 |archive-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731055249/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jul/24/kenya-girls-female-genital-mutilation-fgm-secret |url-status=live }}</ref>