Editing Cumbria (section)

== Dialect influences ==
===Celtic===
* Cumbria was mostly Celtic speaking until the Viking invasion, if not later (Cymry)<ref name="wales">{{Cite book|title=Northern English|url=https://archive.org/details/northernenglishs00wale_327|url-access=limited|last=Wales|first=Katie|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/northernenglishs00wale_327/page/n80 62]|isbn=9780521861076}}</ref>
* English spoken in parts of Cumbria; relatively sparsely populated until 12th/13th centuries<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of English|last=Strang|first=Barbara M, H|publisher=Methuen|year=1970|location=London|pages=256}}</ref> 
* The invading Angles and Saxons forced the indigenous Celtic peoples back to the western highlands of Cumbria, Wales and Cornwall, with little linguistic consequence, apart from a residual scattering of place-names.
* Northwest – possibility of direct influence from Irish Gaelic across Irish Sea via Whitehaven until 10th century<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Routes of English|last=Elmes|first=Simon|publisher=BBC|year=1999|location=London|pages=27}}</ref>
* Celtic influence/kingdoms may have confirmed perception of difference between the north–south{{clarify|date=June 2021}}<ref name="wales" />
* Linguistic interaction between Celts and English underrated: effectively Celtic influence marked the beginnings of a linguistic divide between English and other West Germanic dialects.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tristram|first=Hildegard|year=2000|title=Introduction: languages in contact; layer cake model or otherwise?|journal=The Celtic Languages|volume=2|pages=1–8}}</ref>
* [[Lexis (linguistics)|Lexis]] – Celtic influence left specifically on the sound pattern of sheep-scoring numerals of Cumbrian and West Yorkshire<ref name="wales" />
* Loss of inflections may be explained by contact with Celtic tribes and inter-marriage.<ref name="wales" />

===Anglo-Saxon/Viking===
* Earliest Anglo-Saxon settlements in the east of England. Took over 200 years to establish a frontier in the west where the displaced British had settled<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Social History of English|last=Leith|first=Dick|publisher=Routledge|year=1983|location=London|pages=106}}</ref>
* Morphology – Old Northumbrian (little evidence) signs of loss of inflexions long before southern dialects below the Humber, precede Viking settlements and dialect contact situation<ref name="wales" />

===Scandinavian/Norse/Dane===
* Lack of extent of Old English written evidence<ref name="wales" />
* Main attacks/raids on the North-East coast at Lindisfarne and Jarrow in 793/ 794<ref name="wales" />
* Settlement patterns (Danes) contributed to emerging differences over time between Northumberland. Durham and Yorkshire dialects<ref name="wales" />
* Norwegian settlers via Ireland to Isle of Man, Mersey estuary (901) and the Cumbrian/ Lancashire coasts (900–50) – dialectal differences (Danes/ Norwegians) often lumped together in standard histories – MUST have confirmed emerging dialectal differences east and west of the Pennines<ref name="wales" />
* Danelaw – land of north and east of land ruled under Danish law and Danish customs (978–1016)<ref name="wales" />
* Scandinavian influences vocabulary – common words gradually diffused/ entered word stock (borrowings) which survive in regional use – ''fell'' ('hillside'), ''lug'' ('ear'), ''loup'' ('jump'), ''aye'' ('yes')
* Influence on grammatical structure  – Middle English texts reveal that present participle form ''-and'', and possible that use of ''at'' and ''as'' as relative pronouns from Cumbria to East Yorkshire<ref name="wales" />
* Phonetically /g/, /k/ and cluster /sk/ have a northern/ Norse pronunciation /j/, /ʧ/ and /ʃ/ which are West Saxon – hard vs. soft consonants of north–south dialects – e.g. ''give/ rigg'' ('ridge'), ''skrike'' ('shriek'), ''kist'' ('chest') and ''ik'' ('I')<ref name="wales" />
*  'Interdialect forms' in Danelaw area (diffuse > focussed situation) –  no clear idea about what language they were speaking – mixture of Old English and Norse e.g. ''she'' (3rd person pronoun) is claimed by both languages<ref name="wales" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Trudgill|first=Peter|year=1974|title=Linguistic change and diffusion: description and explanation in sociolinguistic dialect geography|journal=Language in Society|volume=3|issue=2|pages=215–2246|doi=10.1017/s0047404500004358|s2cid=145148233 }}</ref>
* Bilingualism was norm in areas under Danelaw (plausible)<ref name="wales" />
* Norse runic inscriptions survive from 11th century in Cumbria – therefore may only been after Norman Conquest that 'Norse as a living language died out'<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Werner|first=Otmar|year=1991|title=The incorporation of Old Norse pronouns in Middle English: suppletion by loan|journal=Language Contact in the British Isles|pages=369–401|doi=10.1515/9783111678658.369}}</ref>
* Norse surviving longest in closed communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gordon|first=E, V|year=1923|title=Scandinavian Influence in Yorkshire Dialects|journal=Transactions of the Yorkshire Dialect Society|volume=4|pages=5–22}}</ref>

===Normans===
* Jewell (1994: 20) – Northumbria retained relative independence until 13th century – effective government of North by Normans 'petered-out' at Lake District and North of Tees (not recorded in Domesday Book)<ref>{{Cite book|title=The North-South Divide: The Origins of Northern Consciousness in England|last=Jewell|first=Helen|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1994|location=Manchester|pages=20}}</ref>
* Carlisle retaken by Scots in 1136<ref name="wales" />

===Cumbric===
{{main|Cumbric}}
* Early 10th century – The grip from Northumbrian{{clarify|date=June 2021}} on the former territory of [[Rheged]] was that of Britons of Strathcylde reoccupied southwest Scotland and northwest England as far south as Derwent and Penrith.<ref name="price">{{Cite book|title=Languages in Britain and Ireland|last=Price|first=G|publisher=Blackwell|year=2000|location=Oxford|pages=125}}</ref>  which was held until Carlisle retaken by Scots in 1136<ref name="wales" />
* Cumbric perhaps survived until it faded in the early 12th century throughout Cumbria.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Maps of Meaning: An Introduction to Cultural Geography|last=Jackson|first=Peter|publisher=Unwin Hyman|year=1989|location=London|pages=72}}</ref>
* Cumbric score – counting sheep – Welsh correspondence   Welsh ("un, dau, tri") – Cumberland ("yan, tyan, tethera") – Westmorland ("yan, than, teddera") – Lancashire ("yan, taen, tedderte") – West Yorkshire ("yain, tain, eddero")<ref name="price" /> – survived 7–8 centuries after the language itself had died – Brittonic origin
* Not one single complete phrase in Cumbric survives, evidence to suggest strong literary tradition, probably oral, some of this early material is known in a Welsh version{{clarify|date=June 2021}}<ref name="price" />