Editing Christianity (section)

== Scriptures ==
{{Main|Bible|Biblical canon|Development of the Christian biblical canon|Religious text}}
[[File:Gutenberg Bible, Lenox Copy, New York Public Library, 2009. Pic 01.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Bible]] is the sacred book in Christianity.]]
Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the [[biblical canon]], the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]], as the [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in {{bibleverse|2Timothy|3:16||2 Timothy 3:16}} is ''theopneustos'', which literally means "God-breathed".<ref>{{cite book |title=Hermeneutics: Principles and Processes of Biblical Interpretation |edition=2nd |last=Virkler |first=Henry A. |editor-last=Ayayo |editor-first=Karelynne Gerber |year=2007 |publisher=Baker |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=978-0-8010-3138-0 |page=21}}</ref>

Some believe that divine inspiration makes present Bibles [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]], while others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant. Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the [[King James Version]].<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]|title=Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909213651/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|archive-date=9 September 2010}}(§&nbsp;105–108)</ref><ref>Second Helvetic Confession, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071203120450/https://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c01.htm ''Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God'']}}</ref><ref>[[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]], [https://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html ''online text''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980129093951/https://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html |date=29 January 1998}}</ref> Another closely related view is [[biblical infallibility]] or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science.

The canon of the Old Testament accepted by Protestant churches, which is only the [[Tanakh]] (the canon of the [[Hebrew Bible]]), is shorter than that accepted by the Orthodox and Catholic churches which also include the [[deuterocanonical books]] which appear in the [[Septuagint]], the Orthodox canon being slightly larger than the Catholic;<ref>{{cite book| first=S. T. |last=Kimbrough |title=Orthodox And Wesleyan Scriptural Understanding And Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-vhwjamOioC&pg=PA23 |year=2005 | publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |isbn=978-0-88141-301-4 |page=23}}</ref> Protestants regard the latter as [[Biblical apocrypha|apocryphal]], important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar, and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament.<ref>Metzger/Coogan, ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. p. 39.</ref> The New Testament, originally written in [[Koine Greek]], contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all major churches.

Some denominations have [[List of religious texts#Additional and alternative scriptures|additional canonical holy scriptures]] beyond the Bible, including the [[standard works]] of the [[Latter Day Saints movement]] and ''[[Divine Principle]]'' in the [[Unification Church]].<ref>[[John Bowker (theologian)|John Bowker]], 2011, ''The Message and the Book'', UK, [[Atlantic Books]], pp. 13–14</ref>

=== Catholic interpretation ===
{{Main|Catholic theology of Scripture}}
[[File:PonteSantAngeloRom.jpg|thumb|[[St. Peter's Basilica]] viewed from the [[Tiber]]; the [[Vatican Hill]] in the back and [[Castel Sant'Angelo]] in [[Rome]] to the right. Both the basilica and the hill are part of the [[United Nations General Assembly observers|sovereign state]] of [[Vatican City]], the [[Holy See]] of the [[Catholic Church]].]]

In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in [[School of Alexandria|Alexandria]] and [[School of Antioch|Antioch]]. The Alexandrian interpretation, exemplified by [[Origen]], tended to read Scripture [[allegory|allegorically]], while the Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called ''[[theoria]]'') could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.<ref>Kelly. ''Early Christian Doctrines''. pp. 69–78.</ref>

[[Catholic theology]] distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church, [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III, ''The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture'' §&nbsp;115–118]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015}}</ref>

The ''literal'' sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The ''spiritual'' sense is further subdivided into:
* The ''allegorical'' sense, which includes [[Typology (theology)|typology]]. An example would be the [[Passage of the Red Sea|parting of the Red Sea]] being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism.<ref>{{bibleverse|1Cor|10:2}}</ref>
* The ''[[moral]]'' sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching.
* The ''[[anagoge|anagogical]]'' sense, which applies to [[eschatology]], eternity and the [[Apocalypse|consummation of the world]].

Regarding [[exegesis]], following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds:
* The injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the ''literal''<ref>Thomas Aquinas, [https://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm "Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906114843/https://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm |date=6 September 2006}}</ref><ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III §&nbsp;116] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015}}</ref>
* That the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held<ref>[[Second Vatican Council]], [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html ''Dei Verbum'' (V.19)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531175312/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html |date=31 May 2014 }}.</ref>
* That scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church"<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609220852/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=9 June 2010 }}</ref> and
* That "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the [[Bishop]] of [[diocese of Rome|Rome]]".<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm#III "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" §&nbsp;85]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403212113/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm#III |date=3 April 2015}}</ref>

=== Protestant interpretation ===
==== Qualities of Scripture ====
Many Protestant Christians, such as Lutherans<ref name=solascriptura>{{cite web |url=https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=39&cuItem_itemID=12132 |title=Sola Scriptura? |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=15 May 2006 |website=WELS Topical Q&A |publisher=Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod |access-date=26 May 2024 |quote=[M]any passages...state sola scriptura, such as Revelation 22:18-19. If we cannot add anything to the words of Scripture and we cannot take anything away from them, that is Scripture alone. |archive-date=27 September 2009 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090927214527/https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=39&cuItem_itemID=12132 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the Reformed, believe in the doctrine of ''[[sola scriptura]]''—that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and [[Revelation|revealed all truth]] necessary for salvation;<ref name="WELS2014" /><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_PHAGr2TfgC&pg=PA15|title=The Shape of Sola Scriptura |first=Keith A. |last=Mathison |publisher=[[Canon Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-885767-74-5|chapter=Introduction |page=15|title-link=The Shape of Sola Scriptura |author-link=Keith A. Mathison}}</ref> other Protestant Christians, such as Methodists and Anglicans, affirm the doctrine of ''[[prima scriptura]]'' which teaches that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that "tradition, experience, and reason" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible.<ref name="WELS2014">{{cite web|url=https://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/questions-answers/christian/methodist-beliefs|title=Methodist Beliefs: In what ways are Lutherans different from United Methodists?|year=2014|publisher=Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod|access-date=22 May 2014|quote=The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine. They emphasize the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self authenticating and is true in and of itself.|archive-date=22 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522105449/https://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/questions-answers/christian/methodist-beliefs|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Humphrey|first=Edith M.|title=Scripture and Tradition |date=15 April 2013|publisher=Baker|isbn=978-1-4412-4048-4|page=16|quote=historically Anglicans have adopted what could be called a prima Scriptura position.}}</ref> Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear in its meaning (or "perspicuous"). Martin Luther believed that without God's help, Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness".<ref name="Foutz" /> He advocated for "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture".<ref name="Foutz">{{cite web |last=Foutz |first=Scott David |url=https://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000414063800/https://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 April 2000 |title=Martin Luther and Scripture |publisher=Quodlibet Journal |access-date=16 June 2014}}</ref> [[John Calvin]] wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light".<ref>John Calvin,[https://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom45.vii.iv.iv.html '' Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles'' 2 Peter 3:14–18]</ref> Related to this is "efficacy", that Scripture is able to lead people to faith; and "sufficiency", that the Scriptures contain everything that one needs to know to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life.<ref>{{cite book|last=Engelder |first=Theodore E. W. |url=https://archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1 |title=Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture |page=[https://archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1/page/n57 28] |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1934}}</ref>

==== Original intended meaning of Scripture ====
Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the [[historical-grammatical method]].<ref>Sproul. ''Knowing Scripture'', pp. 45–61; Bahnsen, ''[https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics'' (article 6)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204091801/https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm |date=4 December 2014 }}.''</ref> The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in [[Biblical hermeneutics]] to find the intended original meaning in the text.<ref name="Elwell565">{{Cite book |publisher=Baker |isbn=978-0-8010-3413-8 |last=Elwell |first=Walter A. |title=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology |location=Grand Rapids, MI |year=1984 |page=[https://archive.org/details/evangelicaldicti00elwe/page/565 565] |title-link=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology}}</ref> This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre, as well as theological (canonical) considerations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Elliott |url=https://archive.org/details/expositoryhermen0000john |title=Expository hermeneutics : an introduction |publisher=Academie Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-310-34160-4 |location=Grand Rapids, MI |url-access=registration}}</ref> The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As [[Milton S. Terry]] said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture".<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Zondervan |last=Terry |first=Milton |author-link=Milton Terry|title=Biblical hermeneutics: a treatise on the interpretation of the Old and New Testaments |location=Grand Rapids, MI |year=1974 |page=205}} (1890 edition page 103, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy9VAAAAMAAJ&q=%22fundamental+principle%22 view1], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy9VAAAAMAAJ&q=%22neglect+this+principle%22 view2])</ref> Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics.<ref name="Elwell565" />
Some Protestant interpreters make use of [[Typology (theology)|typology]].<ref>e.g., in his [https://biblehub.com/commentaries/mhcw/matthew/1.htm commentary on Matthew 1] (§III.1). [[Matthew Henry]] interprets the twin sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and [[Jewish Christians]]. For a contemporary treatment, see Glenny, ''[https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_typology_glenny.html Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion]''.</ref>