Editing Bias (section)

===Biases in academia===
{{See also|Statistical bias}}

====Academic bias====
{{Main|Academic bias}}
Academic bias is the bias or perceived bias of [[academia|scholars]] allowing their [[belief]]s to shape their [[research]] and the [[scientific community]]. Claims of bias are often linked to claims by conservatives of pervasive bias against political conservatives and religious Christians.<ref>{{citation|last=Hibbing|first=John D|year=2014|title=Differences in negativity bias underlie variations in political ideology|journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences|volume=37|issue=3|pages=297–350|issn=1939-1323|doi=10.1017/S0140525X13001192|pmid=24970428|hdl=1911/77132|s2cid=54466287|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1069&context=poliscifacpub|hdl-access=free|access-date=2019-09-02|archive-date=2019-12-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221122248/http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1069&context=poliscifacpub|url-status=live}}</ref> Some have argued that these claims are based upon [[anecdotal evidence]] which would not reliably indicate systematic bias,<ref name="Ames 2005">{{citation|last1=Ames|first1=Barry|first2=David C|last2=Barker|first3=Chris W|last3=Bonneau|first4=Christopher J|last4=Carman|year=2005|title=Hide the Republicans, the Christians, and the Women: A Response to "Politics and Professional Advancement Among College Faculty"|journal=The Forum|volume=3|issue=2|issn=1540-8884|doi=10.2202/1540-8884.1075|s2cid=14322810}}</ref><ref name="Lee 2006">{{citation|last=Lee |first=John |date=November 2006 |title=The "Faculty Bias" Studies: Science or Propaganda |publisher=American Federation of Teachers |url=http://www.aft.org/pdfs/highered/facultybiasstudies1106.pdf |access-date=2014-01-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217043411/http://www.aft.org/pdfs/highered/facultybiasstudies1106.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-17 }}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Giroux|first=Henry A.|year=2006|title=Academic Freedom Under Fire: The Case for Critical Pedagogy|journal=College Literature|volume=33|issue=4|pages=1–42|issn=1542-4286|doi=10.1353/lit.2006.0051|s2cid=143909432 }}</ref> and have suggested that this divide is due to [[self-selection]] of conservatives choosing not to pursue academic careers.<ref name="Ames 2005"/><ref name=Gross2>{{citation|last=Gross|first=Neil|title=Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5-VLm9EcghoC|date=9 April 2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-674-07448-4|access-date=2014-01-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627000945/http://books.google.com/books?id=5-VLm9EcghoC|archive-date=27 June 2014}}</ref>
There is some evidence that perception of classroom bias may be rooted in issues of [[Homophobia|sexuality]], [[Racism|race]], [[Class discrimination|class]] and [[Sexism|sex]] as much or more than in [[Religious discrimination|religion]].<ref>{{citation|last1=Boysen|first1=Guy A|first2=David L|last2=Vogel|first3=Marissa A|last3=Cope|first4=Asale|last4=Hubbard|s2cid=11334709|year=2009|title=Incidents Of Bias in College Classrooms: Instructor and Student Perceptions|journal=Journal of Diversity in Higher Education|volume=2|issue=4|pages=219–231|issn=1938-8934|doi=10.1037/a0017538}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brady | first1 = K. L. | last2 = Eisler | first2 = R. M. | year = 1995 | title = Gender Bias in the College Classroom: A Critical Review of the Literature and Implications for Future Research | journal = Journal of Research and Development in Education | volume = 29 | issue = 1| pages = 9–19 }}</ref>

====Experimenter bias====
{{main|Experimenter's bias}}
In [[Experimental science|science research]], experimenter bias occurs when experimenter expectancies regarding [[Experiment|study]] results bias the research outcome.<ref name= Sackett>{{cite journal |last=Sackett |first=D. L. |title=Bias in analytic research |journal=Journal of Chronic Diseases |year=1979 |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=51–63 |doi=10.1016/0021-9681(79)90012-2 |pmid=447779 }}</ref> Examples of experimenter bias include conscious or [[unconscious cognition|unconscious]] influences on subject behavior including creation of [[demand characteristics]] that influence subjects, and altered or [[Publication bias|selective recording of experimental results themselves]].<ref name="KantowitzIII2009">{{cite book|author1=Barry H. Kantowitz|author2=Henry L. Roediger, III|author3=David G. Elmes|title=Experimental Psychology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-5VL8PHLsIC&pg=PA371|access-date=7 September 2013|year=2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-59533-5|page=371|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101061647/http://books.google.com/books?id=2-5VL8PHLsIC&pg=PA371|archive-date=1 January 2014}}</ref> It can also involve asking leading probes and not neutrally redirecting the subject back to the task when they ask for validation or questions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Geisen |first1=Emily |url=https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0CRGN8RNT |title=Bias testing in market research: A framework to enable inclusive research design |last2=Sha |first2=Mandy |last3=Roper |first3=Farren |year=2024 |isbn=979-8862902785 |publication-date=January 3, 2024 |pages=}}</ref>

====Funding bias====
{{Main|Funding bias}}
Funding bias refers to the tendency of a scientific study to support the interests of the study's financial sponsor. This phenomenon is recognized sufficiently that researchers undertake studies to examine bias in past published studies.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Krimsky | first1 = Sheldon | author-link = Sheldon Krimsky | year = 2012 | title = Do Financial Conflicts of Interest Bias Research? An Inquiry into the "Funding Effect" Hypothesis | url = http://www.tufts.edu/~skrimsky/PDF/Funding%20Effect%20and%20Bias.PDF | journal = Science, Technology, & Human Values | volume = 38 | issue = 4| pages = 566–587 | doi = 10.1177/0162243912456271 | s2cid = 42598982 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121017165144/http://www.tufts.edu/~skrimsky/PDF/Funding%20Effect%20and%20Bias.PDF | archive-date = 2012-10-17 | access-date = 2015-09-23 }}</ref> It can be caused by any or all of: a conscious or subconscious [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|sense of obligation]] of researchers towards their employers,<ref>{{cite book | author=Cialdini, Robert B | title=Influence: Science and Practice (5th ed) | publisher=Prentice Hall | date=2008-08-08 | isbn=978-0-205-60999-4 | url=https://archive.org/details/influencescience00cial_1 }}</ref> [[Scientific misconduct|misconduct]] or [[Scientific malpractice|malpractice]],<ref name="washingtonpost">{{cite news |author=David Michaels |title=It's Not the Answers That Are Biased, It's the Questions |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/14/AR2008071402145.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2008-07-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009011219/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/14/AR2008071402145.html |archive-date=2017-10-09 }}</ref> [[publication bias]],<ref name="washingtonpost" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wilmshurst |first=Peter |title=Dishonesty in Medical Research |journal=The Medico-Legal Journal |year=2007 |volume=75 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.1258/rsmmlj.75.1.3 |pmid=17506338 |s2cid=26915448 |url=http://www.medico-legalsociety.org.uk/articles/dishonesty_in_medical_research.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521050439/http://www.medico-legalsociety.org.uk/articles/dishonesty_in_medical_research.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-21 }}</ref><ref name="lexchin">{{cite journal |first1=Joel |last1=Lexchin |last2=Bero |first2=Lisa A |first3=Benjamin |last3=Djulbegovic |first4=Otavio |last4=Clark |title=Pharmaceutical industry sponsorship and research outcome and quality: systematic review |journal=BMJ |date=2003-05-31 |volume=326 |pmid=12775614 |issue=7400 |pages=1167–1170 |pmc=156458 |doi=10.1136/bmj.326.7400.1167 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=Anders Sandberg | author-link=Anders Sandberg | title=Supping with the Devil | url=http://www.overcomingbias.com/2007/01/supping_with_th.html | publisher=OvercomingBias | date=2007-01-14 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923171357/http://www.overcomingbias.com/2007/01/supping_with_th.html | archive-date=2015-09-23 }}<!-- This is a science blog written by a notable scientist; therefore it can be considered a reliable source --></ref> or [[reporting bias]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Types of Bias |url=http://www.chalmersresearch.com/bmg/types_bias.html |publisher=Cochrane Bias Methods Group |date=2009-06-19 |access-date=2010-08-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723051446/http://www.chalmersresearch.com/bmg/types_bias.html |archive-date=2010-07-23 }}</ref>

====Full text on net bias====
{{Main|FUTON bias}}
Full text on net (or FUTON) bias is a tendency of [[scholarly method|scholars]] to cite [[academic journal]]s with [[open access]]—that is, journals that make their full text available on the [[internet]] without charge—in their own writing as compared with [[Closed-access|toll access publications]]. Scholars can more easily discover and access articles that have their full text on the internet, which increases authors' likelihood of reading, quoting, and citing these articles, this may increase the [[impact factor]] of open access journals relative to journals without open access.<ref name="pmid 15301326">{{cite journal|last1=Murali |first1=N. S. |last2=Murali |first2=H. R. |last3=Auethavekiat |first3=P. |last4=Erwin |first4=P. J. |last5=Mandrekar |first5=J. N. |last6=Manek |first6=N. J. |last7=Ghosh |first7=A. K. |title=Impact of FUTON and NAA bias on visibility of research |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |volume=79 |issue=8 |pages=1001–1006 |year=2004 |pmid=15301326 |url=https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)62573-1/ |doi=10.4065/79.8.1001 }}</ref><ref name="pmid 12937253">{{cite journal | last1 = Ghosh | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Murali | first2 = N. S. | title = Online access to nephrology journals: The FUTON bias | journal = Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation | volume = 18 | issue = 9 | pages = 1943; author reply 1943 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12937253 | doi = 10.1093/ndt/gfg247 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="cite pmid|16517987">{{cite journal|last1=Mueller |first1=P. S. |last2=Murali |first2=N. S. |last3=Cha |first3=S. S. |last4=Erwin |first4=P. J. |last5=Ghosh |first5=A. K. |title=The effect of online status on the impact factors of general internal medicine journals |journal=The Netherlands Journal of Medicine |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=39–44 |year=2006 |pmid=16517987 |url=http://www.njmonline.nl/njm/getpdf.php?t=a&id=10000037 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719153236/http://www.njmonline.nl/njm/getpdf.php?t=a&id=10000037 |archive-date=2011-07-19 }}</ref><ref name="cite pmid|18974812">{{cite journal | last1 = Krieger | first1 = M. M. | last2 = Richter | first2 = R. R. | last3 = Austin | first3 = T. M. | doi = 10.3163/1536-5050.96.4.010 | title = An exploratory analysis of PubMed's free full-text limit on citation retrieval for clinical questions | journal = Journal of the Medical Library Association | volume = 96 | issue = 4 | pages = 351–355 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18974812 | pmc =2568849}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Gilman, Isaac |title=Opening up the Evidence: Evidence-Based Practice and Open Access |year=2009 |journal=Faculty Scholarship (PUL) |url=http://commons.pacificu.edu/libfac/4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221233556/http://commons.pacificu.edu/libfac/4/ |archive-date=2011-02-21 |access-date=2015-09-02 }}</ref><ref name="pmid 12401287" />

The related bias, no abstract available bias (NAA bias) is scholars' tendency to cite journal articles that have an [[abstract (summary)|abstract]] available online more readily than articles that do not.<ref name="pmid 15301326" /><ref name="pmid 12401287">{{cite journal | last1 = Wentz | first1 = R. | title = Visibility of research: FUTON bias | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11264-5 | journal = The Lancet | volume = 360 | issue = 9341 | pages = 1256 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12401287| s2cid = 5084231 }}</ref>

====Publication bias====
{{main|Publication bias}}
Publication bias is a type of bias with regard to what academic [[research]] is likely to be published because of a tendency among researchers and journal editors to prefer some outcomes rather than others (e.g., results showing a [[Statistical significance|significant]] finding), which leads to a problematic bias in the published literature.<ref name="Song2010">{{cite journal | last1 = Song | first1 = F. | last2 = Parekh | first2 = S. | last3 = Hooper | first3 = L. | last4 = Loke | first4 = Y. K. | last5 = Ryder | first5 = J. | last6 = Sutton | first6 = A. J. | last7 = Hing | first7 = C. | last8 = Kwok | first8 = C. S. | last9 = Pang | first9 = C. | last10 = Harvey | first10 = I. | title = Dissemination and publication of research findings: An updated review of related biases | journal = Health Technology Assessment | volume = 14 | issue = 8 | pages = iii, iix–xi, iix–193 | year = 2010 | doi = 10.3310/hta14080 | pmid = 20181324 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This can propagate further as [[literature review]]s of claims about support for a [[hypothesis]] will themselves be biased if the original literature is contaminated by publication bias.<ref name="Rothstein2005">H. Rothstein, A. J. Sutton and M. Borenstein. (2005). ''Publication bias in meta-analysis: prevention, assessment and adjustments''. Wiley. Chichester, England; Hoboken, NJ.</ref> [[Experiment|Studies]] with significant results often do not appear to be superior to studies with a [[null result]] with respect to quality of [[Design of experiments|design]].<ref name=Easterbrook>{{cite journal |last1=Easterbrook |first1=P. J. |last2=Berlin |first2=J. A. |last3=Gopalan |first3=R. |last4=Matthews |first4=D. R. |title=Publication bias in clinical research |journal=[[Lancet (journal)|Lancet]] |year=1991 |volume=337 |issue=8746 |pages=867–872 |doi=10.1016/0140-6736(91)90201-Y |pmid=1672966|s2cid=36570135 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, statistically significant results have been shown to be three times more likely to be published compared to papers with null results.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dickersin |first1=K. |last2=Chan |first2=S. |last3=Chalmers |first3=T. C. |title=Publication bias and clinical trials |journal=[[Controlled Clinical Trials]] |year=1987 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=343–353 |doi=10.1016/0197-2456(87)90155-3 |display-authors=etal |pmid=3442991}}</ref>