Editing Ashoka (section)

== Religion and philosophy ==

=== Relationship with Buddhism ===
[[File:Upasaka.jpg|thumb|The word ''[[Upāsaka]]'' (𑀉𑀧𑀸𑀲𑀓, "Buddhist lay follower", in the [[Brahmi script]]), used by Ashoka in his [[Minor Rock Edict]] No.1 to describe his affiliation to Buddhism ({{Circa|258 BCE}}).]]

The Buddhist legends state that Ashoka converted to Buddhism,{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=15}} although this has been debated by a section of scholars.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=142}} The [[Minor Rock Edicts#Full texts of the Minor Rock Edicts|Minor Rock Edict 1]] leaves no doubt that Ashoka was a follower of Buddhism. In this edict, he calls himself an [[upāsaka and Upāsikā|upasaka]] (a lay follower of Buddhism) and a ''sakya'' (i.e. Buddhist, after Gautama Buddha's title ''Shakya-Muni'').{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=134}} This and several other edicts are evidence of his Buddhist affiliation:{{sfn|Guruge|1995|pp=43–44}}
* In his Minor Rock Edict 1, Ashoka adds that he did not make much progress for a year after becoming an ''upasaka'', but then, he "went to" the Sangha, and made more progress. It is not certain what "going to" the Sangha means – the Buddhist tradition that he lived with monks may be an exaggeration, but it clearly means that Ashoka was drawn closer to Buddhism.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}
* In his Minor Rock Edict 3, he calls himself an ''upasaka'', and records his faith in the Buddha and the Sangha.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=19–20}}{{sfn|Guruge|1995|p=44}}
* In the [[Major Rock Edicts#Major Rock Edict 8|Major Rock Edict 8]], he records his visit to Sambodhi (the sacred Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya), ten years after his coronation.{{sfn|Guruge|1995|p=44}}
* In the [[Lumbini#Pillar of Ashoka|Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription]], he records his visit to the Buddha's birthplace, and declares his reverence for the Buddha and the sangha.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=13}}
* In the Nigalisagar inscription, he records his doubling in size of a stupa dedicated to a former Buddha, and his visit to the site for worship.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=5}}
* Some of his inscriptions reflect his interest in maintaining the Buddhist sangha.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=5}}
* The [[Saru Maru]] inscription states that Ashoka dispatched the message while travelling to Upunita-vihara in Manema-desha. Although the identity of the destination is not certain, it was obviously a Buddhist monastery ([[vihara]]).{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=157}}

=== Other religions ===
A legend in the Buddhist text ''Vamsatthapakasini'' states that an Ajivika ascetic invited to interpret a dream of Ashoka's mother had predicted that he would patronise Buddhism and destroy 96 heretical sects.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=26}} However, such assertions are directly contradicted by Ashoka's own inscriptions. Ashoka's edicts, such as the Rock Edicts 6, 7, and 12, emphasise tolerance of all sects.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=29}} Similarly, in his [[Major Rock Edicts#Major Rock Edict 12|Rock Edict 12]], Ashoka honours people of all faiths.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}} In his inscriptions, Ashoka dedicates caves to non-Buddhist ascetics, and repeatedly states that both Brahmins and shramanas deserved respect. He also tells people "not to denigrate other sects, but to inform themselves about them".{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}

In fact, there is no evidence that Buddhism was a state religion under Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=37}} None of Ashoka's extant edicts record his direct donations to the Buddhists. One inscription records donations by his Queen [[Karuvaki]], while the emperor is known to have donated the [[Barabar Caves]] to the [[Ajivika]]s.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=19}} There are some indirect references to his donations to Buddhists. For example, the Nigalisagar Pillar inscription records his enlargement of the Konakamana stupa.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=20–21}} Similarly, the [[Lumbini#Pillar of Ashoka|Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription]] states that he exempted the village of Buddha's birth from the land tax, and reduced the revenue tax to one-eighth.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=20}}

Ashoka appointed the ''dhamma-mahamatta'' officers, whose duties included the welfare of various religious sects, including the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas. The Rock Edicts 8 and 12, and the Pillar Edict 7, mandate donations to all religious sects.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=31}}

Ashoka's [[Minor Rock Edicts#Full texts of the Minor Rock Edicts|Minor Rock Edict 1]] contains the phrase "''amissā [[deva (Buddhism)|devā]]''". According to one interpretation, the term "''amissā''" derives from the word "''amṛṣa''" ("false"), and thus, the phrase is a reference to Ashoka's belief in "true" and "false" gods. However, it is more likely that the term derives from the word "''amiśra''" ("not mingled"), and the phrase refers to celestial beings who did not mingle with humans. The inscription claims that the righteousness generated by adoption of dhamma by the humans attracted even the celestial gods who did not mingle with humans.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=21–22}}

=== Dharma ===
{{main|Ashoka's policy of Dhamma}}

Ashoka's various inscriptions suggest that he devoted himself to the propagation of "Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma), a term that refers to the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]] in the Buddhist circles.{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=3–4}} However, Ashoka's own inscriptions do not mention Buddhist doctrines such as the [[Four Noble Truths]] or [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nirvana]].{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=13}} The word "Dharma" has various connotations in the [[Indian religions]], and can be generally translated as "law, duty, or righteousness".{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=3–4}} In the Kandahar inscriptions of Ashoka, the word "Dharma" has been translated as [[eusebeia]] (Greek) and qsyt (Aramaic), which further suggests that his "Dharma" meant something more generic than Buddhism.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=142}}

The inscriptions suggest that for Ashoka, Dharma meant "a moral polity of active social concern, [[religious tolerance]], ecological awareness, the observance of common ethical precepts, and the renunciation of war."{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=3–4}} For example:
* Abolition of the death penalty (Pillar Edict IV){{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}
* Plantation of banyan trees and mango groves, and construction of resthouses and wells, every {{convert|1/2|mi|m|abbr=off|order=flip}} along the roads. (Pillar Edict 7).{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}
* Restriction on killing of animals in the imperial kitchen (Rock Edict 1);{{Sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}} the number of animals killed was limited to two peacocks and a deer daily, and in future, even these animals were not to be killed.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}
* Provision of medical facilities for humans and animals (Rock Edict 2).{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}
* Encouragement of obedience to parents, "generosity toward priests and ascetics, and frugality in spending" (Rock Edict 3).{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}
* He "commissions officers to work for the welfare and happiness of the poor and aged" (Rock Edict 5){{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}
* Promotion of "the welfare of all beings so as to pay off his debt to living creatures and to work for their happiness in this world and the next." (Rock Edict 6){{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}

Modern scholars have variously understood this ''dhamma'' as a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an ''essentially political'' ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=131}}

Ashoka instituted a new category of officers called the ''dhamma-mahamattas'', who were tasked with the welfare of the aged, the infirm, the women and children, and various religious sects. They were also sent on diplomatic missions to the Hellenistic kingdoms of west Asia, in order to propagate the dhamma.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=31}}

Historically, the image of Ashoka in the global Buddhist circles was based on legends (such as those mentioned in the ''[[Ashokavadana]]'') rather than his rock edicts. This was because the Brahmi script in which these edicts were written was forgotten soon and remained undeciphered until its study by James Prinsep in the 19th century.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=5}} The writings of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as [[Faxian]] and [[Xuanzang]] suggest that Ashoka's inscriptions mark the important sites associated with Gautama Buddha. These writers attribute Buddhism-related content to Ashoka's edicts, but this content does not match with the actual text of the inscriptions as determined by modern scholars after the decipherment of the Brahmi script. It is likely that the script was forgotten by the time of Faxian, who probably relied on local guides; these guides may have made up some Buddhism-related interpretations to gratify him, or may have themselves relied on faulty translations based on oral traditions. Xuanzang may have encountered a similar situation, or may have taken the supposed content of the inscriptions from Faxian's writings.{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=6–9}} This theory is corroborated by the fact that some Brahmin scholars are known to have similarly come up with a fanciful interpretation of Ashoka pillar inscriptions, when requested to decipher them by the 14th century [[Tughlaq dynasty|Muslim Tughlaq emperor]] [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]]. According to Shams-i Siraj's ''Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi'', after the king had these pillar transported from [[Topra Kalan|Topra]] and Mirat to Delhi as war trophies, these [[Brahmin]]s told him that the inscriptions prophesied that nobody would be able to remove the pillars except a king named Firuz. Moreover, by this time, there were local traditions that attributed the erection of these pillars to the legendary hero [[Bhima]].{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=9–10}}

According to scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Ashoka's dharma shows Buddhist influence. For example, the Kalinga Separate Edict I seems to be inspired by Buddha's ''Advice to Sigala'' and his other sermons.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}

====Animal welfare====
Ashoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be slaughtered for [[Yajna|sacrifice]].{{sfn|Fitzgerald|2004|p=120}} However, he did not prohibit common cattle slaughter or beef eating.<ref>{{cite book |last=Simoons |first=Frederick J. |date=1994 |title=Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA108 |edition=2nd |location=Madison |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |page=108 |isbn=978-0-299-14254-4 |access-date=13 February 2016 |archive-date=14 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214171640/https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA108 |url-status=live }}</ref>

He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and [[neutering|castration]] of animals during certain periods such as [[Chaturmasa]] and [[Uposatha]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html |title=The Edicts of King Asoka |translator-last=Dhammika |translator-first=Ven. S. |year=1994 |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510060618/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html |archive-date=10 May 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hhlfSZLDjRsC&pg=PA314 |title=Asoka |author=D.R. Bhandarkar, R. G. Bhandarkar |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2000 |pages=314–315 |isbn=9788120613331 |access-date=17 December 2015 |archive-date=26 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426172502/https://books.google.com/books?id=hhlfSZLDjRsC&pg=PA314 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Ashoka also abolished the imperial hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the imperial residence.<ref name="GeraldMichael1998">{{cite book | author1=Gerald Irving A. Dare Draper | author2=Michael A. Meyer | author3=H. McCoubrey | title=Reflections on Law and Armed Conflicts: The Selected Works on the Laws of War by the Late Professor Colonel G.I.A.D. Draper, Obe | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETjo7FKSsVkC&pg=PA44 | access-date=30 October 2012 | year=1998 | publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers | isbn=978-90-411-0557-8 | page=44 | archive-date=14 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514230412/http://books.google.com/books?id=ETjo7FKSsVkC&pg=PA44 | url-status=live }}</ref> Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Longest Struggle: Animal Advocacy from Pythagoras to Peta |last=Phelps |first=Norm |author-link=Norm Phelps |year=2007 |publisher=Lantern Books |isbn=978-1590561065 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/longeststrugglea00phel }}</ref>

As Ashoka's edicts forbade both the killing of wild animals and the destruction of forests, he is seen by some modern environmental historians as an early embodiment of that environmental ethos.<ref name=elverskog-2020-lead-1>{{cite book|last=Elverskog|first=Johan|title=The Buddha's Footprint: An Environmental History of Asia|location=Philadelphia|publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-5183-8|year=2020|page=56|quote=The imperial edicts of Asoka echo this commodity view of trees.  In Pillar Edict V, Asoka decreed that "forests must not be burned without reason." The Buddhist community took this mandate further by declaring that in order to protect forests from such conflagrations monks were allowed to set counterfires}}</ref><ref name=fisher-2018-lead-3> {{cite book|last=Fisher|first=Michael|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|location=Cambridge and London|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year =2018|isbn=9781316276044|doi=10.1017/9781316276044|page=72}}: "Following the Buddha’s message, he banned Brahminic Vedic animal sacrifices in his capital (although he evidently lacked the administrative control to stop them outside of it). Overall, Ashoka’s edicts proclaim his compassion for animals, perhaps motivated by an environmental ethic (in addition to his revenue or administrative goals). Consequently, today many environmentalists evoke Ashoka as an ancient Indian exemplar."</ref>